Handbook on Marine Environment Protection : Science, Impacts and Sustainable Management

00
0
	Foreword
	Preface
	Contents
1
	Part I: Natural Science Basics
2
	Chapter 1: Introduction into Physical Oceanography
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Description of the Oceans
		1.3 Characterization of Seawater
		1.4 Water Mass Formation and Spreading
		1.5 Measurement Techniques for Water Mass Properties
		1.6 How the Wind Moves the Ocean
		1.7 Measurement Techniques for Direct Current Observations
		1.8 Small Scale Processes
		1.9 Waves and Tides
		1.10 An Example of Ocean-Atmosphere Interactions: El Nino
		1.11 Conclusions
		References
	Glossary
3
	Chapter 2: Ecological Organization of the Sea
		2.1 Pelagic Zone
		2.2 Pelagic Communities
			2.2.1 Plankton
				2.2.1.1 Phytoplankton
				2.2.1.2 Zooplankton
			2.2.2 Nekton
		2.3 Benthic Zone
			2.3.1 Euphotic Coastal Benthic Zone (Phytal)
			2.3.2 Aphotic (Dark) Oceanic Benthic Zone
		2.4 Benthic Communities
			2.4.1 Tide Pool Communities
			2.4.2 Seaweed Communities
			2.4.3 Seagrass Meadows
			2.4.4 Estuaries (Including Mudflats, Salt Marshes and Mangroves)
			2.4.5 Coral Reefs
			2.4.6 Deep Sea Vent and Seep Communities
		2.5 Conclusion
		References
4
	Chapter 3: Marine Ecosystem Services
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Categorization
		3.3 Important Goods and Services
		3.4 Valuation of Marine Ecosystem Services
		3.5 Conclusions
		References
5
	Part II: Impacts of Sectoral Marine Activities
6
	Chapter 4: Impact of Fishing Activities on Marine Life
		4.1 Status of Global and European Fisheries
		4.2 Fishing Impacts
			4.2.1 Impact of Fishing on Target Species
			4.2.2 Discards and By-Catch of Non-Target Species
			4.2.3 Impact of Fishing on Communities
			4.2.4 Impacts of Fishing on Benthic Ecosystems and Habitats
		4.3 Conclusions for Ecosystem Friendly Fisheries
		References
7
	Chapter 5: Mariculture
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Mariculture and the Receiving Environment
			5.2.1 Introduction of Non-Native Species
			5.2.2 Genetic Modification of Sympatrics
			5.2.3 Control of Predators—Acoustic Pollution
			5.2.4 Salmon-Farming, Eutrophication and Organic Enrichment
			5.2.5 Salmon-Farming, Chemotheraputants and Non-Target Organisms
			5.2.6 Mussel-Farming, Plankton Alteration and Benthic Habitat Alteration
		5.3 Management Requirements
			5.3.1 Improving Sustainable Management
			5.3.2 Macroalgae and Biofuels
		5.4 Outlook
		References
8
	Chapter 6: Shipping
		6.1 Structure and State of the Shipping Sector
			6.1.1 Structure of Shipping
			6.1.2 Scale of Shipping
			6.1.3 Regional Spread
			6.1.4 Economic Aspects
		6.2 Impacts of Shipping on the Marine Environment
			6.2.1 Introduction
			6.2.2 Oil
			6.2.3 Hazardous and Noxious Substances and Other Cargoes Capable of Causing Harm
			6.2.4 Sewage
			6.2.5 Garbage
			6.2.6 Air Pollution
			6.2.7 Anti-Fouling Treatments
			6.2.8 Wrecks
			6.2.9 Invasive Species
			6.2.10 Noise
		6.3 Cumulative Effects
		6.4 Costs of Environmental Degradation
		6.5 International Agreements and Management Requirements
		6.6 Regulation
			6.6.1 Oil
			6.6.2 Hazardous and Noxious Cargoes
			6.6.3 Sewage
			6.6.4 Garbage
			6.6.5 Air Pollution
			6.6.6 Antifouling Treatments
			6.6.7 Wrecks
		6.7 Response
			6.7.1 Oil
			6.7.2 Hazardous Substances
		6.8 Enforcement
		6.9 Conclusions
		References
9
	Chapter 7: Impacts of Coastal Developments on Ecosystems
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Dynamic Equilibrium of Coastal Systems
		7.3 Uncertainties in Process Knowledge and Implications to Coastal Modelling
		7.4 Coastal Developments and Their Impact to Coastal Systems
		7.5 Conclusion
		References
10
	Chapter 8: Offshore Oil and Gas Production and Transportation
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 General Characteristics of Impacts
		8.3 Seismic Surveys
		8.4 Field Commissioning
		8.5 Drilling Operations
		8.6 Production Activity
		8.7 Tanker Transportation
		8.8 Transportation by Pipelines
		8.9 Decommissioning
		8.10 Oil Spills
		8.11 Impact on Fisheries
		8.12 Conclusions
		References
11
	Chapter 9: Exploitation of Offshore Wind Energy
		9.1 Development of Offshore Wind Energy
		9.2 Environmental Impacts of OWF
			9.2.1 Impacts of OWFs on Benthos
			9.2.2 Impacts of OFWs on Fish
			9.2.3 Impacts of OWFs on Birds
				9.2.3.1 Seabirds
				9.2.3.2 Migratory Birds (Seabirds and Terrestrial Birds)
			9.2.4 Impacts of OWFs on Bats
			9.2.5 Impacts of OWFs on Harbor Porpoises
		9.3 Strategies for an Environmentally Sound Development of Offshore Wind Energy
			9.3.1 Exclusion of OWFs in Areas of High Ecological Priority
			9.3.2 Technical Mitigation Measures against Ramming Noise
			9.3.3 Application of Marine Compensation Measures
				9.3.3.1 The Need for Marine Compensation
				9.3.3.2 Real Marine Compensation Measures
				9.3.3.3 Alternative forms of Offshore Compensation: Onshore Compensation of Offshore Impacts or Minimization of Other Marine Impacts
				9.3.3.4 Monetary Payment as a form of Marine Compensation
				9.3.3.5 Compensation Models
				9.3.3.6 Disadvantages and Weaknesses of Marine Compensation Measures
			9.3.4 Conclusions and Future Tasks
		References
12
	Chapter 10: Dredging for Navigation, for Environmental Cleanup, and for Sand/Aggregates
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Dredging: Purposes, Equipment, and Material Transport
			10.2.1 Purposes
				10.2.1.1 Navigation Dredging
				10.2.1.2 Environmental Enhancement Dredging
				10.2.1.3 Dredging for Reclamation, Extraction of Sand and Gravel, and Construction
			10.2.2 Dredging Equipment
				10.2.2.1 Mechanical Dredges
				10.2.2.2 Hydraulic Dredges
				10.2.2.3 Environmental Cleanup Dredges
			10.2.3 Transportation of Dredged Material
		10.3 Dredged Material Disposal and Beneficial Use
			10.3.1 Open-Water Disposal
			10.3.2 Confined Disposal Facilities
			10.3.3 Beneficial Use of Dredged Material
		10.4 Environmental Considerations and Protection of the Marine Environment
			10.4.1 Physical Impacts of Dredging and Disposal of Dredged Material
			10.4.2 Potential Impacts of Contaminated Dredged Material
			10.4.3 Disposal of Contaminated Dredged Material
			10.4.4 Using Dredged Material for Beneficial Purposes
		10.5 Environmental Regulation of Dredging and Disposal/Placement
		10.6 Future Directions: Sustainable Dredging and Dredged Material Management
			10.6.1 Sediment Management
			10.6.2 Beneficial Use of Dredged Material
			10.6.3 Climate Adaptation
			10.6.4 Sustainability: Technological Innovations
			10.6.5 Nature-Based Engineering
			10.6.6 Application and Implementation of International Regulations
		References
13
	Chapter 11: Environmental Risks of Deep-sea Mining
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Manganese Nodules
			11.2.1 Potential Widespread Habitat Destruction in Areas with Fragile and Poorly Understood Ecosystems
			11.2.2 The Impact of Sediment-Laden Plumes in Mid-Water
			11.2.3 Slow Recovery Potential of Seabed Ecosystems
			11.2.4 Noise and Light
			11.2.5 Mitigation of Impacts
		11.3 Cobalt Crusts
			11.3.1 Potential Widespread Habitat Destruction in Areas with Fragile and Poorly Understood Ecosystems
			11.3.2 The Impact of Sediment-Laden Plumes
			11.3.3 Possible Toxic Impacts to Seabed Fauna
			11.3.4 Noise and Light
			11.3.5 Mitigation of Impacts
		11.4 Polymetallic Sulphides
			11.4.1 Habitat Destruction and Modification
			11.4.2 Cumulative Impacts, Biodiversity Loss, and Alternate States
			11.4.3 Sediment Plumes and Ecotoxicology
			11.4.4 Light Pollution
			11.4.5 Mitigation of Impacts
		11.5 Conclusions
		References
14
	Chapter 12: Dumped Chemical Weapons
		12.1 General Description
		12.2 Environmental Fate of Munitions and Chemicals
		12.3 CWA Behavior in Seawater
		12.4 Risks and Impacts on the Marine Environment
		12.5 Management Requirements
		References
15
	Chapter 13: Marine Climate Engineering
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Why Have Ocean-Based Climate Engineering Methods Been Proposed?
		13.3 Carbon Dioxide Removal Methods
			13.3.1 Physical Methods for Enhancing Oceanic CO2 Uptake
				13.3.1.1 Artificial Downwelling
				13.3.1.2 Artificial Upwelling
				13.3.1.3 Direct Injection of CO2 into the Deep Ocean
				13.3.1.4 Dumping of Terrestrial Biomass into the Deep Ocean
			13.3.2 Chemical or Electro-Chemical Methods for Enhancing Oceanic CO2 Uptake
			13.3.3 Biological Methods for Enhancing CO2 Uptake
				13.3.3.1 Coastal Management
				13.3.3.2 Ocean Fertilization of Phytoplankton
				13.3.3.3 Bioenergy from Marine Sources with Carbon Capture and Storage
		13.4 Radiation Management Climate Engineering Methods
			13.4.1 Ocean Albedo Modification
			13.4.2 Marine Cloud Brightening
			13.4.3 Earth Radiation Management
		13.5 Conclusion
		References
16
	Part III: Impacts of Land-Based Activities
17
	Chapter 14: Agriculture
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Nitrogen and Phosphorus Losses from Global Agriculture
		14.3 Changes in the Areas of Agricultural Land and Forests
		14.4 Changes in Crop and Animal Productivity
		14.5 Changes in Fertilizer Use
		14.6 Changes in the Amounts of N and P in Animal Products and Manures
		14.7 Changes in the Trade of Food and Feed
		14.8 Nutrient Flows in Food Systems
		14.9 Changes in Nutrient Balances
		14.10 Some Final Comments
		References
18
	Chapter 15: Land-Based Industries
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Impacts of Industrial Pollutants
		15.3 Relevance of Industrial Sources
		15.4 Reducing Pollution from Industrial Sites
		15.5 Outlook
		References
19
	Chapter 16: Land-Based Wastewater Management
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 State of the Art Techniques for Wastewater Collection and Treatment
			16.2.1 Wastewater Collection and Transport
			16.2.2 Wastewater Treatment
		16.3 Emissions of Wastewater Treatment Plants
			16.3.1 Conventional Pollutants
			16.3.2 Pollutants of Rising Concern
				16.3.2.1 Organic Micropollutants
				16.3.2.2 Microplastics
				16.3.2.3 Engineered Nanoparticles
				16.3.2.4 Pathogens
		16.4 Significance of Land-Based Wastewater Management for Marine Pollution
			16.4.1 Conventional Pollutants (COD, BOD, N and P)
			16.4.2 Organic Micropollutants
			16.4.3 Microplastics
			16.4.4 Engineered Nanoparticles
			16.4.5 Pathogens
		16.5 Conclusions
		References
20
	Chapter 17: Tourism
		17.1 Structure and State of the Tourism Sector
			17.1.1 Introduction
			17.1.2 Scale of Tourism
			17.1.3 Regional Spread
			17.1.4 Economic Aspects
		17.2 Impacts of Tourism on the Marine Environment
			17.2.1 Pollution
			17.2.2 Physical Structures
			17.2.3 Beach and Shore Usage
			17.2.4 Interaction with Wildlife
				17.2.4.1 Marine Diving
				17.2.4.2 Coral Viewing
				17.2.4.3 Bird-Watching
				17.2.4.4 Whale, Seal and Dolphin Watching
				17.2.4.5 Shark Watching
				17.2.4.6 Recreational Fishing and Hunting
				17.2.4.7 Boating and Personal Leisure Transport
			17.2.5 Cumulative Effects
			17.2.6 Costs of Environmental Degradation
		17.3 Management Requirements
			17.3.1 Key Requirements and Challenges
			17.3.2 Instruments for Sustainable Management
		17.4 Conclusions
		References
21
	Part IV: Pollution from Diffuse Sources
22
	Chapter 18: Climate Change: Warming Impacts on Marine Biodiversity
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Organismal Response to Temperature
		18.3 Adaptation to Altered Temperature Regimes
		18.4 Range Shifts Alter Regional Marine Diversity under Altered Temperature Regimes
		18.5 Species Interactions in Altered Temperature Regimes
		18.6 Expected and Observed Trends in Local Diversity Under Changing Climate
		18.7 Protection
		References
23
	Chapter 19: Ocean Acidification
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Present State and Predicted Future of Ocean Acidification
			19.2.1 Variability of Ocean Acidification
		19.3 Impacts of Ocean Acidification
			19.3.1 Biological Challenges of Decreasing Ocean pH
				19.3.1.1 Life Cycle Differences in OA Effects
				19.3.1.2 Acclimatisation, Adaptation, and Parental Effects
				19.3.1.3 Variations in OA Effects Within Species or Among Closely Related Species
				19.3.1.4 Community Effects
			19.3.2 Ecosystems of Particular Concern
		19.4 Mitigation of Ocean Acidification
		References
24
	Chapter 20: Pollution with Hazardous Substances
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Sources and Common Principles of Marine Pollution
			20.2.1 Sources
			20.2.2 Common Principles of Marine Pollution
		20.3 Environmental Impact
			20.3.1 Environmental Risk Assessment
			20.3.2 Biological Effects
		20.4 Examples for the Current Status of Contaminants
			20.4.1 Tributyltin (TBT)
			20.4.2 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
			20.4.3 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCP)
		20.5 Challenges and Future Perspectives
		References
25
	Chapter 21: Pollution with Radioactive Substances
		21.1 Introduction to Marine Radioactivity
		21.2 Elements, Atoms, Isotopes and Nuclides
		21.3 Types of Radioactive Decay
		21.4 Law of Radioactivity
		21.5 Units of Activity
		21.6 Radionuclides in the Marine Environment
		21.7 Relevant Radionuclides in the Marine Environment
		21.8 Marine Radioecology
		21.9 Conclusion
		References
26
	Chapter 22: Eutrophication
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Cultural Nutrient Enrichment
		22.3 Symptoms of Eutrophication
			22.3.1 Phytoplankton
			22.3.2 Harmful Algae
			22.3.3 Anoxia and Hypoxia
			22.3.4 Macrophytes
		22.4 The Wadden Sea: A Case Study
			22.4.1 Eutrophication Increase and Recovery
			22.4.2 Outlook and Implications for Management
		22.5 Conclusions and Outlook
		References
27
	Chapter 23: Marine Litter
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 Occurrence and Quantities
		23.3 Sources and Pathways of Marine Litter
			23.3.1 North-East Atlantic
			23.3.2 Baltic Sea
			23.3.3 Mediterranean Sea
			23.3.4 Black Sea
		23.4 Impacts of Marine Litter
			23.4.1 Entanglement
			23.4.2 Ingestion
			23.4.3 Other Impacts
		23.5 From Existing Knowledge to Sound Solutions to Combat Marine Litter
			23.5.1 Monitoring
			23.5.2 Risk Assessment
			23.5.3 Regional Action Plans on Marine Litter
		References
28
	Chapter 24: Input of Energy/Underwater Sound
		24.1 Introduction
		24.2 A brief Introduction to Underwater Acoustics: Concepts and Terms
		24.3 Impacts of Underwater Sound on Marine Life
			24.3.1 Effects of Sound on Individuals
			24.3.2 Effects of Sound on Populations
			24.3.3 Effects of Sound on the Environment and Ecosystems
		24.4 Anthropogenic Sources and Emission Trends
		24.5 Current Management and Mitigation Approaches
			24.5.1 Shortcomings of Current Implementations
		24.6 Challenges and Requirements of Prudent Management
			24.6.1 Understanding the Natural Environment
			24.6.2 Understanding the Effects of Sound
			24.6.3 Understanding Acoustic Metrics and Terms of the Trade
			24.6.4 Promoting Technical Progress
		24.7 Further Reading
		References
29
	Chapter 25: Introduction of Non-indigenous Species
		25.1 Introduction
		25.2 Baseline
			25.2.1 Terminology
			25.2.2 Criteria Applying to NIS
		25.3 Mechanisms and Drivers
			25.3.1 Framework of the Invasion Process
			25.3.2 Natural Dispersal
			25.3.3 Human-Mediated Vectors and Routes
				25.3.3.1 Commercial Shipping
				25.3.3.2 Corridors
				25.3.3.3 Recreational Activities
				25.3.3.4 Aquaculture Activities
				25.3.3.5 Aquarium and Live Food Trade
				25.3.3.6 Artificial Structures, Habitat Management
			25.3.4 The Main Driver Shipping and Risk Evaluation
			25.3.5 Introduction Rate
			25.3.6 Factors Supporting the Invasion Process
		25.4 Impacts
			25.4.1 Overview
			25.4.2 Unintentional Introductions
				25.4.2.1 Historic Case or Cryptic Species
				25.4.2.2 NIS as Indirect Vector for Other Introductions
				25.4.2.3 Synergistic Factors in the Success of IAS
				25.4.2.4 Introduction with Ballast Water: Interference of NIS with Existing Food Web
			25.4.3 Intentional Introductions
				25.4.3.1 Aquaculture Imports and Co-introductions: Complex Multi-­Factorial Impact by Non-native Oysters
				25.4.3.2 Natural Dispersal as Secondary Vector in the Spread of Introduced IAS
				25.4.3.3 Escapes and Intentional Discharge
		25.5 Research Requirements and Management
		25.6 Perspectives
		References
30
	Part V: Social Drivers, Developments, and Perspectives of Increasing Ocean Uses
31
	Chapter 26: A Short History of the Use of Seas and Oceans
		26.1 Introduction
		26.2 Human Beings
		26.3 Environment
		26.4 Technology
		26.5 Seas and Oceans as a Place to Transport People, Goods, and Information
		26.6 Seas and Oceans as Places for Resources
		26.7 Seas and Oceans as Territories
		26.8 Seas and Oceans as a Subject of Research
		26.9 Seas and Oceans as Places of Perception and Memory
		26.10 Looking Forward
		References
32
	Chapter 27: Factors Behind Increasing Ocean Use: The IPAT Equation and the Marine Environment
		27.1 Introduction
		27.2 Factors Behind Environmental Impacts
		27.3 IPAT and the Marine Setting
			27.3.1 Population (P)
			27.3.2 Affluence (A)
			27.3.3 Technology (T)
		27.4 Concluding Remarks
		References
33
	Part VI: General Aspects of Management and Governance of Human Activities
34
	Chapter 28: Challenges and Foundations of Sustainable Ocean Governance
		28.1 Introduction
		28.2 The Growing Need for Sustainable Utilization of the Seas
		28.3 Central Challenges to Achieving Sustainable Ocean Governance
			28.3.1 Social Conflict Challenges
			28.3.2 Information and Conceptual Challenges
			28.3.3 Legal and Institutional Challenges
			28.3.4 Individual and State Self-Interest Challenges
				28.3.4.1 Individual Interests and Social Dilemmas
				28.3.4.2 States’ Negative Interests
		28.4 Foundations of a Sustainable International Ocean Law
			28.4.1 Elements of Successful Negotiations of International Environmental Protection Conventions
			28.4.2 Substantial and Material Elements of Successful Environmental Conventions
			28.4.3 Elements of Successful Implementation of Environmental Conventions
		28.5 Conclusion and Perspectives
		References
35
	Chapter 29: Institutional Framework for Marine Environmental Governance
		29.1 Introduction
		29.2 The Institutional Framework for Marine Environmental Protection
			29.2.1 The UNCLOS Regime
			29.2.2 The United Nations ‘Family’
			29.2.3 Beyond UNCLOS and the UN System
		29.3 Institutional Interactions, Coordination and Cooperation
		29.4 Conclusion and Perspectives
		References
36
	Chapter 30: International Principles of Marine Environmental Protection
		30.1 Introduction
		30.2 The Legal Status of Principles
			30.2.1 Principles in a Pragmatic Context: From Policy to Law
			30.2.2 Principles in Legal Doctrine: From Basics to Specifics
			30.2.3 Principles in a Positivist Context
				30.2.3.1 Overview
				30.2.3.2 General Principles of Law
				30.2.3.3 General Principles of International Law
		30.3 The Content and Status of Legal Principles in Marine Environmental Law
			30.3.1 Cooperation
			30.3.2 Neminem Laedere
			30.3.3 Precaution
				30.3.3.1 Origin
				30.3.3.2 Legal Status
				30.3.3.3 Content
				30.3.3.4 Context of Application
			30.3.4 Environmental Impact Assessment
			30.3.5 Freedom of Marine Scientific Research
			30.3.6 Transparency and Participation
			30.3.7 Sustainability and Economic Uses of the Sea
			30.3.8 Common Heritage of Mankind
		30.4 Conclusions
		References
37
	Chapter 31: Overview of Management Strategies and Instruments
		31.1 Introduction
		31.2 Direct Regulation
			31.2.1 Standard-Setting
			31.2.2 Restrictions and Prohibitions
			31.2.3 Licensing and Permitting
		31.3 Strategies, Plans and Programmes
			31.3.1 Integrated Maritime Policies: The Marine Strategy Framework Directive
			31.3.2 Marine Spatial Planning
			31.3.3 Marine Protected Areas
		31.4 Environmental Information and Public Participation
		31.5 Economic and Voluntary Instruments
		31.6 Conclusion
		References
38
	Chapter 32: Future Prospects of Marine Environmental Governance
		32.1 Introduction
		32.2 Ocean Governance: Development, Norms and Tools, and Challenges
			32.2.1 Legal and Institutional Development of Ocean Governance
			32.2.2 Pertinent Norms and Tools
			32.2.3 Challenges
		32.3 Future Outlook on Ocean Governance
		32.4 Conclusion and Perspectives
		References
39
	Part VII: Traditional Marine Management Topics
40
	Chapter 33: The International Legal Framework for Conservation and Management of Fisheries and Marine Mammals
		33.1 Introduction: Conservation of Marine Living Resources Before the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
		33.2 Past and Present Legal and Institutional Frameworks Governing International Fisheries
			33.2.1 The Historical Background
			33.2.2 Living Resources Under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
				33.2.2.1 The Exclusive Economic Zone
				33.2.2.2 The High Seas
		33.3 The UN Fish Stocks Agreement and the FAO Compliance Agreement
		33.4 Marine Mammals
		33.5 Current Issues and Future Developments
		Bibliography
41
	Chapter 34: Aqua- and Mariculture Management: A Holistic Perspective on Best Practices
		34.1 Introduction: Central Issues of Aquaculture Management
		34.2 Global Trends in Aquaculture Development
		34.3 The Need for a Socio-Ecological Perspective
		34.4 Existing Institutional and Legal Framework
		34.5 Central Management Instruments and Strategies
			34.5.1 Harmonization with Development Planning
			34.5.2 Integrated Coastal Zone Management
		34.6 Best Practices
			34.6.1 Risk Assessment
			34.6.2 Minimizing and Predicting Impacts
			34.6.3 Adaptive Management
		34.7 Status and Results of Management Efforts, Perspectives and Next Steps to be Taken
			34.7.1 Reducing Aquaculture’s Ecological Footprint
			34.7.2 Making Ecological Aquaculture a Reality
		34.8 Conclusion
		References
42
	Chapter 35: Offshore Oil and Gas Exploitation
		35.1 The Commercial Background of the Offshore Oil and Gas Sector
			35.1.1 Oil Companies
			35.1.2 Contractual Partners of Oil Companies
			35.1.3 The Role of Non-governmental Organisations
		35.2 The Legal Framework for the Offshore Oil and Gas Sector
			35.2.1 Public International Law: The Law of the Sea
			35.2.2 National Laws and Regulations
			35.2.3 Selected Regional Approaches
			35.2.4 European Union Law
			35.2.5 Private Agreements Between Operators with a Regulatory Impact in Europe
		35.3 Central Management Instruments in Offshore Oil and Gas Exploitation
			35.3.1 Ownership of Offshore Oil and Gas Rights
			35.3.2 Grant of Exploration and Exploitation Rights by the State
			35.3.3 Production Sharing Agreements
			35.3.4 Regulatory Regimes for Licensing
		35.4 Conclusion
		Bibliography
			Books, Academic Articles and Newspaper Articles
			EU Legal Acts and Documents
			International Instruments
			Interview
			Case Before the International Tribunal of the Law of the Sea (ITLOS)
43
	Chapter 36: Sustainable Shipping
		36.1 Introduction
		36.2 Sustainable Shipping and the International Community
		36.3 The International Legal Framework of Shipping
		36.4 Port State Control
			36.4.1 The European Union and Shipping
		36.5 Case-Study: The Uncontrolled Spread of Non-native Aquatic Species
		36.6 Pollution Liability and Compensation Regimes
		36.7 Conclusion
		References
44
	Chapter 37: Management of Hazardous Substances in the Marine Environment
		37.1 Introduction
		37.2 Chemical Risks and Management Approaches Over Time
		37.3 National and Regional Policies: From Forerunners to Laggards
			37.3.1 The European Union
			37.3.2 The Baltic Sea Region and HELCOM
			37.3.3 The USA
			37.3.4 Regional Air Pollution Convention: The Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants
			37.3.5 China
		37.4 Global Frameworks on Hazardous Chemicals
			37.4.1 The Broader Frame: The UN Conferences
			37.4.2 A Non-binding Central Tool: The Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM)
			37.4.3 Communicating Hazards: The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals
			37.4.4 An Early Agreement: The Basel Convention
			37.4.5 Hazardous Chemicals under Increasing Control: The Rotterdam Convention
			37.4.6 Restricting the Worst: The Stockholm Convention
		37.5 Discussion—Closing the Gap
		References
45
	Chapter 38: Origin and Management of Radioactive Substances in the Marine Environment
		38.1 Radioactive Substances as Pollution in the Marine Environment
			38.1.1 Sources of Marine Radioactivity
				38.1.1.1 Nuclear Weapon Tests
				38.1.1.2 Dumping of Radioactive Wastes and Other Nuclear Material
				38.1.1.3 Discharges to the Marine Environment
				38.1.1.4 Marine Contamination by the Accident at Chernobyl in April 1986
				38.1.1.5 Contamination of the Pacific Ocean by the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Stations Accident in March 2011
			38.1.2 Management Measures to Reduce the Potential Impact from Marine Radioactive Sources to the Population
		38.2 Conclusions
		References
46
	Chapter 39: Waste/Litter and Sewage Management
		39.1 Introduction
		39.2 Marine Litter: Facts and Management Requirements
		39.3 Sectoral Approaches to Address Different Sources of Marine Litter
			39.3.1 Management Strategies to Address Sea-Based Sources of Marine Litter
				39.3.1.1 Shipping
				39.3.1.2 Fisheries and Aquaculture
			39.3.2 Addressing Land-Based Sources of Marine Litter
				39.3.2.1 Waste Management
				39.3.2.2 Sustainable Production and Consumption
		39.4 Integrated Approaches to Marine Litter
			39.4.1 Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter in the Baltic Sea
			39.4.2 The OSPAR Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter
		39.5 Outstanding Issues: The Example of Dumping at Sea as a Potential Additional Source of Marine Litter
		39.6 Conclusion
		References
47
	Chapter 39: Waste/Litter and Sewage Management
		39.1 Introduction
		39.2 Marine Litter: Facts and Management Requirements
		39.3 Sectoral Approaches to Address Different Sources of Marine Litter
			39.3.1 Management Strategies to Address Sea-Based Sources of Marine Litter
				39.3.1.1 Shipping
				39.3.1.2 Fisheries and Aquaculture
			39.3.2 Addressing Land-Based Sources of Marine Litter
				39.3.2.1 Waste Management
				39.3.2.2 Sustainable Production and Consumption
		39.4 Integrated Approaches to Marine Litter
			39.4.1 Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter in the Baltic Sea
			39.4.2 The OSPAR Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter
		39.5 Outstanding Issues: The Example of Dumping at Sea as a Potential Additional Source of Marine Litter
		39.6 Conclusion
		References
48
	Chapter 40: Coastal and Ocean Tourism
		40.1 Introduction
		40.2 Coastal Tourism Management
			40.2.1 General Management Approaches
			40.2.2 Climate Change Related Strategies
				40.2.2.1 Step 1—Getting the Right People Involved in a Participatory Process
				40.2.2.2 Step 2—Screening for Vulnerability: Identifying Current and Potential Risks
				40.2.2.3 Step 3—Identifying Adaptation Options
				40.2.2.4 Step 4—Evaluate Adaptation Options and Select Course of Action
				40.2.2.5 Step 5—Implementation
				40.2.2.6 Step 6—Monitor and Evaluation Adaptations
		40.3 Conclusion
		References
49
	Part VIII: Emerging Management Topics
50
	Chapter 41: The Greening of Ports
		41.1 Introduction
		41.2 The Environmental Challenge in Ports
			41.2.1 Environmental Management
			41.2.2 Challenges and Difficulties
		41.3 Ports in the Global Context of Marine Environmental Protection
			41.3.1 Global Environmental Policy: Ecosystem Approach and Sustainable Development
			41.3.2 The National and International Legal Framework
		41.4 An Example of the Role of Ports to Combat Marine Pollution from Ships: Port State Control
		41.5 An Example of the Role of Ports to Combat Land-­Based Pollution and Environmental Degradation
		41.6 Ports’ Role Regarding Specific Issues
			41.6.1 Climate Change and Air Pollution
			41.6.2 Non-indigenous Aquatic Species
			41.6.3 Port Reception Facilities for Pollutants
		41.7 Summary and Perspectives
		References
51
	Chapter 42: Offshore Windfarms
		42.1 Introduction
		42.2 Opportunities and Challenges for Offshore Wind Farm Deployment
		42.3 Blowing Hot Then Cold: Legal and Policy Challenges for Offshore Wind
			42.3.1 Recognising and Balancing Effects on People
			42.3.2 Environmental Effects
		42.4 A Positive Spin? Legal and Policy Frameworks for Addressing Challenges
		42.5 Charging Ahead: Emerging Best Practice in Regulating Marine Wind Farms
		42.6 A Revolution Per Minute: Striding Bravely into a Low Carbon Energy Future
		References
52
	Chapter 43: Wave and Tidal Energy
		43.1 Introduction
		43.2 Why Is Management Required—Central Issues
		43.3 The Management Challenge
			43.3.1 The Extraction of Hydrokinetic Energy
			43.3.2 Direct Effects
				43.3.2.1 Physical
				43.3.2.2 Noise
				43.3.2.3 Collisions
			43.3.3 New Ecological Space
			43.3.4 Activity Displacement
		43.4 Legal and Institutional Framework
		43.5 Management—Instruments, Strategies and Best Practice
		43.6 Management Results and Next Steps
		References
53
	Chapter 44: Deep-Seabed Mining
		44.1 Introduction
		44.2 Central Issue: Why Is Management Required?
		44.3 What Are The Management Requirements and What Are The Challenges?
		44.4 Existing International and Regional Legal and Institutional Framework on DSM
			44.4.1 International Legal: The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
				44.4.1.1 Legal Status of the Area and Its Resources
				44.4.1.2 Other Parts of the LOSC Relevant to Environmental Management of DSM
					Environmental Aspects: Part XI, Annex III, Implementing Agreement
					Environmental Aspects: Part XII (Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment)
				44.4.1.3 Part XIII (Marine Scientific Research)
			44.4.2 International Legal and Institutional
				44.4.2.1 International Seabed Authority
				44.4.2.2 International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
				44.4.2.3 International Maritime Organization
				44.4.2.4 1972 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter and Its 1996 Protocol
			44.4.3 Regional Institutional
				44.4.3.1 South Pacific
				44.4.3.2 European Union
		44.5 Central Management Instruments and Strategies
		44.6 Best Practices
		44.7 Status and Results of Management Efforts, Perspectives and Next Steps
		References
54
	Chapter 45: Marine Biodiversity: Opportunities for Global Governance and Management Coherence
		45.1 Introduction
		45.2 Biodiversity Loss and Management Challenges
		45.3 An Emerging International Scientific Process & Its Cross-Cutting Management Potential
			45.3.1 EBSAs
			45.3.2 The EBSA-Process
			45.3.3 Conservation Approaches Towards an  Ecosystem-Based Management
			45.3.4 The Relevance of Impact Assessments to Management
			45.3.5 Management Approaches
		45.4 Concluding Remarks
		References
55
	Chapter 46: Marine Protected Areas: Global Framework, Regional MPA Networks and a National Example
		46.1 Introduction
		46.2 The Role of MPAs in the Protection of Marine Biodiversity
		46.3 Global Processes
			46.3.1 Ecologically and Biologically Significant Areas—EBSA
			46.3.2 From EBSAs to MPAs Accepted Worldwide
		46.4 MPA Networks Within the Regional Seas Conventions—Some Examples
			46.4.1 MPA regime of the OSPAR Convention
			46.4.2 MPA Regime of the Helsinki Convention
			46.4.3 Barcelona Convention
			46.4.4 MPA Regime Under CCAMLR
		46.5 MPA Regime of a Nation State (Example: Germany)
		46.6 Outlook—Requirements for a Well-managed, Ecologically Coherent and Representative MPA Network
		References
			Links
56
	Chapter 47: Marine Environmental Protection and Climate Change
		47.1 Introduction
		47.2 Direct Climate Governance
			47.2.1 Promoting Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction at Sea: The UNFCCC and the IMO Regime
			47.2.2 CO2 Emissions as Pollution of the Seas Under UNCLOS and Other Conventions Prohibiting Pollution of the Marine Environment
		47.3 Indirect Climate Governance: Protecting Marine Biodiversity from the Adverse Effects of Climate Change
			47.3.1 Protection of Marine Biodiversity Under the CBD and Other Conventions of Global Reach
			47.3.2 Regional Protection of Marine Biodiversity
			47.3.3 Protecting Polar Biodiversity
		47.4 Conclusions
		References
57
	Chapter 48: Management of Non-indigenous Species and Invasive Alien Species
		48.1 Introduction
		48.2 Management Requirements and Challenges
		48.3 Existing International Legal and Institutional Framework
			48.3.1 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
			48.3.2 Global Marine Conventions
			48.3.3 Regional Sea Conventions
			48.3.4 Ballast Water Management Convention
			48.3.5 Specific European Regulations and Directives
				48.3.5.1 EU-IAS Regulation
				48.3.5.2 EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive
				48.3.5.3 Regulation (EC) Concerning Use of Alien and Locally Absent Species in Aquaculture
		48.4 Concluding Remarks and Further Perspectives
		References
58
	Chapter 49: Integrating Sectoral Ocean Policies
		49.1 Introduction
		49.2 The Ecosystem Approach as a Management Guideline
		49.3 Australia’s Integrated Ocean Policy
		49.4 Canada’s Ocean Policy
		49.5 The Approach of the European Union
		49.6 Conclusions
		References
59
	Chapter 50: Marine Scientific Research
		50.1 Challenges on the Road to Environmentally Sustainable Marine Scientific Research
		50.2 International Legal Framework in the UNCLOS
			50.2.1 Regime for Marine Scientific Research in Part XIII of UNCLOS
			50.2.2 Regime for the Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment in Part XII of UNCLOS
			50.2.3 Relationship Between Parts XIII and XII of the UNCLOS
		50.3 Sources of Norms and Standards for the Sustainable Regulation and Management of Marine Scientific Research
			50.3.1 Norms and Standards Developed by Private Actors
			50.3.2 Regional Regulatory and Management Measures
			50.3.3 Domestic Regulatory and Management Measures
			50.3.4 International Regulatory and Management Measures
		50.4 Emerging Principles and Best Practices for The Environmentally Sustainable Management of Marine Scientific Research
			50.4.1 Objectives and General Principles
			50.4.2 Planning Marine Scientific Research
			50.4.3 Conduct of Marine Scientific Research
			50.4.4 Marine Research Data and Knowledge
			50.4.5 Capacity Building and Transfer of Technology
		50.5 Management Results and Next Steps
		References
60
	Chapter 51: An Emerging Environmental Issue: Marine Discharge of Mine Tailings
		51.1 Introduction
		51.2 Mining, Mine Tailings, and Environmental Effects
			51.2.1 Environmental Effects of Mining
			51.2.2 Disposal Techniques for Mine Tailings
			51.2.3 Why Marine Mine Tailings Disposal
			51.2.4 Environmental Impacts of Marine Disposal of Mine Tailings
		51.3 Best Management Practices for Marine Disposal of Mine Tailings
		51.4 Case Studies in Indonesia and Norway
		51.5 International Authority for Regulating Marine Discharge of Mine Tailings
		51.6 Decision-making: Comparing Impacts on  Land vs. the Sea
		51.7 Going Forward: Challenges and Issues
		References
61
	Chapter 52: Managing and Regulating Underwater Noise Pollution
		52.1 Why Does Underwater Noise Pollution Require Management?
		52.2 What Are the Challenges for Managing Underwater Noise Pollution?
		52.3 Institutional and Legal Frameworks Governing Underwater Noise Input
			52.3.1 International Law
				52.3.1.1 The Precautionary Principle
			52.3.2 International Treaties
				52.3.2.1 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
				52.3.2.2 Other International Treaties
					ASCOBANS
					ACCOBAMS
					Antarctic Treaty System
					CMS
					CBD
			52.3.3 The EU’s Marine Strategy Framework Directive
			52.3.4 National Legislation
				52.3.4.1 Whale-watching
				52.3.4.2 Seismic Surveys (Air Guns)
				52.3.4.3 Sonars
				52.3.4.4 Offshore Constructions (Particularly Pile Driving)
		52.4 Central Management Instruments and Strategies
		52.5 Best Practices
		52.6 Status and Results of Management Efforts, and Perspectives
		References
62
	Chapter 53: Marine Geo-Engineering
		53.1 Introduction
		53.2 Marine Geo-engineering Technologies and Why Management Is Required
		53.3 Institutional and Legal Framework Governing Marine Geo-Engineering
			53.3.1 UNCLOS
			53.3.2 London Convention/London Protocol
				53.3.2.1 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide
				53.3.2.2 Ocean Fertilization
			53.3.3 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
		53.4 Central Management Instruments and Strategies and Paradigmatic Aspects
		53.5 Conclusion and Outlook
		References
63
	Chapter 54: Marine Spatial Planning
		54.1 Introduction
		54.2 Definition and Main Functions of Marine Spatial Planning
		54.3 Key Elements of MSP Promoting the Integration of Ecological Interests
		54.4 Legal Framework
			54.4.1 International Law: UNCLOS
			54.4.2 European Union Law: Directive 2014/89/EU
		54.5 Perspective
		References