Handbook of natural fibres. Volume 2, Processing and applications

Front Cover......Page 1
Handbook of Natural Fibres......Page 2
Recently Published and Upcoming Titles in The Textile Institute Book Series......Page 3
Handbook of Natural Fibres......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Contributors......Page 14
One - Processing techniques for natural fibres......Page 18
   1.1.2 World cotton production......Page 20
  1.2 Fibre growth development......Page 24
   1.2.1 Submicroscopic structure of the secondary wall......Page 26
   1.3.1 The role of fibre length......Page 27
   1.3.4 Fibre fineness and maturity......Page 28
   1.3.5 Fibre colour......Page 29
   1.3.7 Fibre weathering......Page 30
   1.3.9 Fibre testing......Page 31
    1.4.2.1 Defoliation......Page 32
  1.5 Ginning mill processes and technology......Page 33
  1.6 Cotton classification......Page 38
   1.7.1 Grade standards......Page 39
  1.8 Cotton yarn spinning......Page 40
    1.8.1.3 Cotton carding......Page 41
    1.8.2.1 Ring spinning......Page 42
    1.8.2.3 Open-end rotor spinning......Page 43
    1.8.2.4 Siro spinning......Page 44
   1.8.3 Fibre-to-yarn conversion......Page 45
   1.9.1 Yarn count ‘yarn linear density’......Page 47
   1.9.5 Yarn imperfections......Page 48
   1.10.2 Warping......Page 49
    1.10.2.2 Section warp......Page 50
   1.10.4 Leasing, knotting and drawing......Page 51
    1.10.5.1 Weaving process......Page 52
   1.11.1 Definition of terry towel......Page 53
   1.11.2 Basics of terry weaving......Page 54
   1.12.1 Definition of knitting......Page 55
    1.12.2.1 Loop and stitch......Page 56
    1.12.2.3 Tuck......Page 57
   1.13.1 Bursting strength test of fabric......Page 59
   1.13.6 Dimensional changes after home laundering......Page 60
   1.14.1 Application of nondestructive testing......Page 61
  1.15 Conclusion......Page 62
   1.15.1 Future trends......Page 63
  References......Page 64
  Further reading......Page 65
  2.1 Jute fibre......Page 66
   2.2.1 Jute cellulose......Page 69
   2.2.2 Jute hemicellulose......Page 71
   2.2.3 Jute-lignin......Page 72
   2.2.4 Fats and waxes in jute......Page 73
   2.2.6 Inter-unit linkages in jute......Page 74
   2.2.7 Physical structure and properties of jute......Page 75
  2.3 Chemical aspects and effect of chemical treatments of jute fibres......Page 77
   2.3.1 Treatment of jute with caustic soda (NaOH)......Page 79
   2.3.3 Bleaching/oxidation of jute and related fibres......Page 80
   2.3.5 Stabilized bleaching of jute......Page 81
   2.3.7 Enzyme treatment......Page 82
   2.3.9 Treatment of jute fibres with jute batching oil or its substitute as processing aids......Page 83
   2.4.1 Spinning process for making jute yarns......Page 84
   2.4.2 Processibility of chemically treated/modified jute fibres......Page 85
   2.5.1 Jute weaving techniques......Page 86
   2.5.2 Conversion of jute yarn to fabric......Page 88
   2.5.3 Developments in jute weaving including shuttle less weaving......Page 89
   2.6.1 Desizing......Page 91
   2.6.2 Scouring and bleaching......Page 92
   2.6.3 Chemical dehairing and photo-stabilization of jute yarns and fabrics......Page 93
   2.6.4 Dyeing of jute yarns and fabrics......Page 95
    2.6.4.1 Application of direct dyes on jute......Page 96
    2.6.4.2 Application of acid dyes on jute......Page 98
    2.6.4.3 Application of basic dyes on jute......Page 100
    2.6.4.4 Application of reactive dyes on jute......Page 101
    2.6.4.5 Application of vat dyes on jute......Page 103
    2.6.4.6 Application of sulphur dyes on jute......Page 107
    2.6.4.7 Application of natural dyes/colours on jute......Page 109
    2.6.4.8 Developments in dyeing of jute......Page 112
   2.6.5 Pigment printing of jute......Page 114
    2.6.6.2 Finishing for improved abrasion resistance and fibre shedding......Page 115
    2.6.6.3 Finishing to improve crease resistant property......Page 116
    2.6.6.5 Finishing to improve water repellant property......Page 117
    2.6.6.7 Simultaneous dyeing and finishing in single bath......Page 118
  2.7 Eco-friendly processing of jute......Page 119
   2.7.3 Eco-friendly desizing of jute......Page 120
   2.7.6 Eco friendly dyeing of jute......Page 121
   2.7.8 Eco friendly chemical finishing of jute......Page 122
  2.8 Diversified end uses of jute as technical textiles......Page 123
  2.9 Conclusions and future trends......Page 128
  References......Page 129
  Further reading......Page 136
  3.1 Introduction to silk and silk industry......Page 138
    3.2.1.1 Types of mulberry silk......Page 141
    3.2.2.2 Japanese races......Page 142
    3.2.3.4 Moulting......Page 143
    3.2.4.2 Oak tasar......Page 144
    3.2.4.4 Muga......Page 145
    3.2.4.8 Mussel silk......Page 146
    3.3.1.1 Artificial feeding of silkworm larvae......Page 147
    3.3.2.1 Production of silk yarns......Page 148
    3.4.1.3 Cocoon cooking......Page 149
    3.5.1.1 Country charka......Page 150
    3.5.1.3 Multi-end basin......Page 151
    3.5.1.4 Automatic reeling......Page 152
  3.6 Silk fabric manufacture......Page 153
   3.6.1 Stages in the silk fabric manufacture......Page 154
    3.6.1.4 Twisting......Page 155
    3.6.1.6 Pirn winding......Page 156
     Soap and soda boil method......Page 157
     Roving......Page 158
     Gassing......Page 159
  3.8 Future trends in natural silk production......Page 160
  References......Page 161
  4.1 Introduction......Page 164
   4.2.1 A review of the types of flax used in the production of textiles......Page 165
    4.2.1.2 Short flax for carded yarns......Page 166
   4.2.2 The technical properties of flax fibres......Page 167
    4.2.3.1 Fibre processing......Page 169
    4.2.3.4 Cottonization of hemp fibres......Page 170
   4.2.4 Textile fibres for reasonable blends......Page 171
  4.3 Applications and examples......Page 172
   4.3.1 Textile products end uses containing flax and hemp......Page 173
   4.3.2 A brief overview of the financial and economic value of hemp fibres......Page 174
   4.3.3 Statistics of flax production, including locations and production tonnages......Page 176
  4.4 Future trends and conclusions......Page 178
  4.5 Sources of further information and advice......Page 180
  References......Page 183
  5.1 Introduction......Page 186
   5.2.1 Randomly orientated flax stems (linseed flax): all fibre extraction......Page 188
   5.2.2 Aligned stems: scutching and hackling......Page 192
  5.3 Composite reinforcement textiles: use of processes that can maximise the mechanical and the deformability of textile reinfo .........Page 193
   5.3.1 A. non-woven reinforcement for composites......Page 194
    5.3.1.2 Mechanical properties of flax non-woven fabrics......Page 195
    5.3.1.3 Formability potential of flax-nonwoven fabrics......Page 196
    5.3.2.1 Manufacture of different families of yarns......Page 198
    5.3.2.2 Textile architecturation techniques for 2D and 3D fabrics......Page 204
    5.3.2.3 Deformability of reinforcement textiles......Page 205
  5.4 Flax fibre geotextiles......Page 207
   5.4.1 Degradation of geotextiles......Page 208
   5.4.2 Solutions to control the biodegradation of the textiles......Page 209
  5.5 Conclusions......Page 212
  References......Page 213
  6.1 Introduction......Page 222
   6.2.1 Description of the flax plant architecture......Page 223
   6.2.2 Slenderness and stability of flax......Page 224
  6.3 Multi-scale mechanical characterization of flax......Page 225
     Three-point bending test – set-up for testing of a flax stem......Page 226
     Hypothesis......Page 228
     Evaluation of the fibre modulus obtained by bending tests......Page 229
     Influence of the measure of cross-section diameter on the tensile behaviour of flax bundles......Page 230
     Influence of the gauge length......Page 231
     Influence of process on cohesion between elementary fibres......Page 232
    6.3.3.1 Impact of fibre morphology and diameter measurement on tensile properties calculation......Page 233
    6.3.3.2 Tensile behaviour of elementary flax fibres......Page 234
    6.3.4.1 Investigations using nanoindentation......Page 236
    6.3.4.2 Investigations by AFM......Page 237
  References......Page 238
  7.2 Key principles of enzyme treatment of natural fibres......Page 244
   7.2.1 Degumming of bast fibrous plants......Page 245
    7.2.2.2 Desizing......Page 248
    7.2.2.4 Bleach clean up......Page 249
    7.2.2.6 Modification of wool fibre......Page 250
  7.3 Main types of enzyme treatments for natural fibres......Page 251
   7.3.3 Catalases......Page 252
   7.3.4 Pectinases......Page 253
   7.3.6 Laccase......Page 254
  7.5 Sources of further information and advice......Page 256
  References......Page 257
  Further reading......Page 261
  8.1 Introduction......Page 262
   8.2.1 The physical and chemical structure of wool......Page 263
    8.2.2.1 Felting shrinkage......Page 270
    8.2.2.2 Shrink-resist treatments......Page 271
    8.2.2.3 Polymer treatments......Page 274
    8.2.2.5 Chemical treatment plus polymer: batch treatments......Page 275
    8.2.2.6 Continuous treatment of wool top......Page 276
    8.2.2.7 Environmental issues of chlorination in wool shrinkproofing......Page 277
   8.2.3 Setting......Page 278
    8.2.3.1 OPTIM – a new textile fibre made from wool......Page 280
    8.2.4.1 Natural dyes......Page 281
    8.2.4.2 Synthetic dyes......Page 283
    8.2.4.3 Effect of fibre structure on dyeing......Page 285
    8.2.4.4 Fibre damage in processing and dyeing......Page 288
   8.2.6 Wrinkling and wrinkle recovery......Page 289
    8.2.6.1 Ageing and annealing......Page 291
   8.2.7 Insect resistance......Page 292
   8.2.9 Treatments to reduce yellowing......Page 294
   8.2.10 Polymer grafting......Page 296
   8.3.1 Chemical and physical structure of silk......Page 297
   8.3.2 Weighting......Page 298
   8.3.3 Cross-linking and grafting treatments......Page 300
   8.3.5 Dyeing and printing......Page 301
   8.3.6 Treatment with acid and alkali......Page 302
   8.3.8 Other protein fibres......Page 303
  8.4 Cotton......Page 304
   8.4.1 Physical and chemical structure of cotton......Page 305
    8.4.2.1 Singeing, de-sizing, scouring and bleaching......Page 306
   8.4.3 Mercerization......Page 307
   8.4.4 Treatment with liquid ammonia......Page 309
   8.4.5 Cross-linking for durable press finishes......Page 310
   8.4.6 Corona treatment......Page 313
    8.4.7.1 Dyeing cotton with natural dyes......Page 314
    8.4.7.3 Direct dyes......Page 315
    8.4.7.4 Reactive dyes......Page 316
    8.4.7.5 Vat, sulfur and azoic dyes......Page 318
   8.4.8 Environmental issues of cotton processing......Page 320
   8.5.1 Mercerization......Page 322
   8.5.3 Acetylation and cyanoethylation......Page 323
  Appendix: abbreviations......Page 324
  References......Page 325
  9.1 Introduction......Page 340
  9.2 Key principles of electrokinetic properties of natural fibres......Page 341
   9.2.1 Theoretical background......Page 342
   9.2.2 Experimental methods......Page 346
   9.2.3 The zeta potential of natural fibres......Page 347
  9.3 Applications......Page 352
   9.3.1 Cellulose pulp......Page 353
   9.3.2 Cotton......Page 354
   9.3.3 Other cellulosic fibres......Page 357
   9.3.4 Regenerated cellulose......Page 359
   9.3.5 Human hair......Page 360
  9.4 Future trends......Page 363
  9.5 Conclusion......Page 364
  9.6 Sources of further information and advice......Page 365
   Abbreviations......Page 366
  References......Page 367
   10.1.1 Historical background......Page 372
   10.1.2 Flame retardant (FR) market (Wilkie et al., 2009)......Page 376
  10.2 Key issues in flame retardancy of natural fibres and lignocellulosic textiles......Page 379
   10.3.1 Cellulosic fibres......Page 385
    10.3.2.1 Silk......Page 389
    10.3.2.2 Wool......Page 390
    10.3.2.3 Zirpro flame retardant treatments......Page 391
    10.3.3.1 Flammability of leather......Page 392
  10.4 Methods of improving flame retardancy in natural fibres......Page 395
   10.4.1 Flame retardant textile back-coatings......Page 400
  10.5 Future trends......Page 401
  10.6 Sources of further information and advice......Page 403
  10.7 Conclusions......Page 404
  References......Page 405
  11.1 Introduction......Page 410
  11.2 Key issues in recultivation of polluted lands......Page 411
  11.3 Methods of recultivation and remediation of polluted lands......Page 415
   11.4.1 Results of reclamation work......Page 420
  11.5 Future trends......Page 430
  References......Page 431
  Sources of further information and advice......Page 433
  12.1 Plant biology......Page 436
   12.1.1 Sex dimorphism......Page 437
   12.1.2 Biologically active compounds......Page 438
     12.1.2.1.1 Characteristics of the most common cannabinoids......Page 439
     12.1.2.2.1 Characteristics of the most common terpenes and terpenoids......Page 440
     12.1.2.3.1 Synthesis......Page 441
    12.1.2.5 Alkaloids......Page 442
    12.1.2.6 Lignanamides and phenolic amides......Page 443
   12.2.1 Endocannabinoid system (ECS)......Page 444
     12.2.1.2.1 CB1, CB2 receptors......Page 445
     12.2.1.2.2 Endogenous cannabinoids......Page 446
   12.2.2 Psychogenic side effects of cannabinoids – physiological elucidation......Page 447
    12.2.3.1 THC – tetrahydrocannabinol......Page 448
    12.2.3.2 CBD – cannabidiol......Page 449
    12.2.3.3 CBN – cannabinol......Page 450
    12.2.3.6 CBC – cannabichromene......Page 451
    12.2.3.9 Acid forms......Page 452
    12.2.3.10 Terpenoids and flavonoids......Page 453
   12.2.5 Reports on the effectiveness of medical treatment, description of medical cases......Page 454
    12.2.6.1 Available preparations and use......Page 455
  12.3 Conclusions and prospects......Page 457
  References......Page 458
Two - Applications and case studies for natural fibres......Page 466
  13.1 Introduction......Page 468
    13.2.1.1 Dyeing......Page 471
   13.3.1 Dying effect......Page 472
    13.3.2.1 Wrinkle recovery angle......Page 474
    13.3.2.3 Tensile strength......Page 475
    13.3.2.4 Air permeability......Page 478
    13.3.2.5 Moisture regain......Page 479
  13.4 Future trends......Page 480
  References......Page 482
  14.1 Introduction......Page 486
   14.2.1 Fundamentals of composite materials......Page 488
   14.2.2 Matrix resins systems for NFCs......Page 491
  14.3 Natural fibre reinforcement forms for green composites......Page 494
  14.4 NFC manufacturing methods......Page 497
   14.5.1 Tensile test (ASTM D3039, EN 61, ISO 3268)......Page 501
   14.5.2 Flexural properties (ASTM D790, ISO 178)......Page 502
   14.5.3 Impact/toughness properties (ASTM D256, EN ISO 180:2000)......Page 503
   14.5.5 Flammability testing......Page 504
   14.6.1 Green composites for building materials......Page 505
   14.6.2 Green composites for automotive applications......Page 507
   14.6.3 Structural NFC composites by z-axis fibre reinforcement......Page 509
  14.7 Conclusions......Page 511
  Acknowledgements......Page 512
  References......Page 513
  Further reading......Page 515
  15.1 Introduction......Page 516
  15.2 Natural vegetable fibres for geotextiles and their suitability......Page 517
  15.3 Types of synthetics geotextiles......Page 518
  15.4 Market size of natural fibre geotextile......Page 520
  15.5 Functional requirements of geosynthetic materials......Page 521
   15.6.1 Separation or stabilization......Page 524
   15.6.2 Drainage/filtration......Page 525
   15.6.3 Erosion control......Page 526
   15.6.4 Reinforcement......Page 527
   15.7.1 Functions and applications of geotextiles in civil engineering......Page 528
   15.7.2 Reinforcement of weak soil and other materials......Page 538
   15.7.4 Erosion control......Page 540
   15.7.6 Moisturizers......Page 541
  15.8 Future trends......Page 542
  15.9 Source of further information......Page 543
  Acknowledgements......Page 544
  References......Page 545
  16.1 Introduction......Page 548
   16.2.1 Challenges of milling natural fibres......Page 549
   16.2.2 Pre-treatments of natural fibres for milling......Page 550
   16.2.3 Methods of milling natural fibres......Page 551
     Air jet mill......Page 552
     Ball mills......Page 553
     Stirred media mills (attritors)......Page 554
    16.2.3.3 Advantage of wet milling of natural fibres......Page 555
    16.2.3.4 Obtaining powder after wet milling......Page 556
    16.2.3.6 Explosion risks of fibre powders......Page 557
   16.3.1 Particle size and morphology......Page 558
   16.3.3 Surface area of particles......Page 561
   16.3.4 Surface energy of particles......Page 563
   16.3.5 Bulk and tapped density......Page 564
   16.3.6 Cohesion and flowability of powder......Page 565
   16.3.7 Biodegradation of fibre particles......Page 566
   16.4.2 Biomedical applications......Page 567
   16.4.4 3D printing......Page 569
  16.5 Conclusion and outlook......Page 570
  References......Page 571
  17.1 Introduction......Page 574
   17.2.2 Hemp......Page 575
   17.3.1 Oil composition in flax and hempseeds......Page 577
   17.3.2 Protein profile of flax and hempseeds......Page 579
  17.4 Nutritional and health effects of flax and hemp......Page 580
   17.4.2 Protein......Page 582
   17.4.3 Tocopherols and polyphenols......Page 583
   17.4.4 Cannabinoids......Page 584
   17.4.5 Terpenes......Page 585
   17.5.1 Hemp-based products for human nutrition......Page 586
   17.5.2 Hemp-based products for animal nutrition......Page 588
  17.6 Regulatory issues regarding novel flax and hemp products......Page 589
  17.7 Application of flax and hemp in cosmetics and personal care......Page 590
   17.7.1 Traditional uses of flax and hemp for the skin......Page 591
   17.7.3 Flaxseed oil......Page 592
    17.7.4.2 Flax mucilage gums......Page 593
     Hempseed oil......Page 594
     Hempseed oil in soaps and shampoos......Page 595
     Other hemp compounds acting on the skin......Page 596
   17.7.6 Flax and hemp in the cosmeceutical industry......Page 597
  17.8 Conclusion......Page 598
  References......Page 599
  Further reading......Page 606
  18.2 Available natural raw materials for paper and packaging......Page 608
   18.2.1 Wood fibres......Page 610
    18.2.1.1 Softwood fibres......Page 612
    18.2.1.2 Hardwood fibres......Page 613
   18.2.2 Agriculture residues and annual plants......Page 614
   18.2.3 Structure and ultrastructure of fibres......Page 617
    18.3.1.1 Mechanical pulping......Page 619
    18.3.1.3 Bleaching......Page 621
    18.3.1.5 Production of MFC and NCC......Page 623
   18.3.2 Papermaking......Page 624
    18.3.2.1 Stock preparation......Page 625
    18.3.2.2 Sheet formation......Page 626
   18.3.3 Specificities of non-wood fibres for pulp and papermaking......Page 627
  18.4 New challenges for paper and board producers......Page 629
   18.4.3 Smart functions......Page 630
  18.5 Conclusions and futures trends......Page 631
  References......Page 632
  Further reading......Page 636
  19.1 Introduction to environmental textiles......Page 638
  19.2 The importance of jute and coconut plant cultivation......Page 639
  19.3 Extraction of jute and coir fibres......Page 644
  19.4 Critical properties of jute and coir fibres......Page 645
  19.5 The nature of commercial products from jute and coir......Page 646
   19.6.1 Pre-seeded erosion control blanket (PsECB)......Page 648
   19.6.2 Jute-coir prefabricated vertical drain (PVD) (Brecodrain)......Page 649
   19.6.3 Jute-asphalt overlay fabric (JAO)......Page 652
   19.6.4 The super absorbent coir mat (Coirsorb)......Page 656
   19.6.5 Braided jute sapling bag......Page 658
   19.6.6 Transportable natural grass lawn (COCOLAWN)......Page 661
   19.6.7 Waterproof jute packaging (natural rubber coated jute, NRcJ)......Page 662
  19.7 Market potential of jute-coir environmental textiles......Page 664
  19.8 Conclusion......Page 665
  References......Page 666
   20.1.2 Infectious diseases......Page 670
   20.2.1 Microorganisms on surfaces in general: biofilms......Page 671
   20.2.3 Survival time: diversity......Page 672
  20.3 Textiles as protection against biohazards and as infection reservoirs......Page 673
   20.3.2 Infection reservoir......Page 674
   20.4.2 Basic mechanisms of the antimicrobial effect......Page 675
   20.4.4 Evaluation of antimicrobial efficacy......Page 676
   20.5.1 Mechanism......Page 677
   20.5.2 Cellulose fibres......Page 678
   20.6.2 Cellulose fibres......Page 679
   20.7.1 Mechanism......Page 681
   20.7.3 Protein fibres......Page 682
   20.8.2 Synthetic dyes......Page 683
   20.9.1 Role of semiconductors in antimicrobial activity......Page 684
   20.9.3 Coating textiles......Page 685
   20.10.2 Natural bioactive agents on natural fibres......Page 686
   20.11.2 Triclosan (2,4,4′-trichloro-2′-hydroxydiphenyl ether)......Page 687
   20.11.8 Trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole......Page 688
   20.12.1 Nanoparticles......Page 689
  20.13 Future trends......Page 690
  References......Page 691
  Further reading......Page 704
   21.1.1 Motivation for looking at nature as a model for textile materials......Page 706
    21.1.1.2 Architectural and other built environment flexible materials......Page 707
   21.2.1 Introduction to biomimetics......Page 708
   21.2.2 Design and function in natural systems......Page 709
   21.2.3 Biologically inspired design and function in human systems......Page 710
   21.3.1 Biomimetic inspired textiles using synthetic fibres......Page 711
   21.3.2 Biomimetic inspired textiles using natural fibres......Page 712
   21.3.3 Synthetic natural fibres via molecular biology......Page 713
  21.4 Conclusions and future trends......Page 714
  References......Page 716
  A......Page 718
  B......Page 721
  C......Page 722
  D......Page 726
  E......Page 728
  F......Page 730
  H......Page 733
  J......Page 735
  K......Page 736
  M......Page 737
  N......Page 739
  P......Page 742
  R......Page 745
  S......Page 746
  T......Page 749
  W......Page 751
  Z......Page 753
Back Cover......Page 754