Handbook of Metrology and Applications

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
About the Associate Editors
Section Editors
Contributors
Part I: Metrology and Quality Infrastructure
	1 International and National Metrology
		Introduction
		Early Historical Evolution of Measurements
		French Revolution and Progress Toward the Uniform Measurement System
		Current Status of SI Unit System
		Future of Metrology
		Conclusion
		References
	2 Wake-Up India to Build Self-Reliant Metrology Structure for Modern India
		Impact of Measurement on Daily Life
		What Is the Importance of Measurement?
			Measurement Protects People
			Measurement Governs Transactions
			Measurement Makes Industries to be more Innovative and Competitive
			Measurement Increases Knowledge Base
			Measurement Help Make Decisions
		What Is the Meaning of Measurand?
		What Is Not Measurement?
		Where Would the World be Without National and International Standards?
		Relevance of Calibration and Testing Laboratories
		Metrology, National/International Standards, and Regulations
		What Is Metrology?
		Importance of Metrology in Modern World
		Who Is a Metrologist?
		Metrology Training Centers
			Challenges Faced
		Science, Technology, and Engineering of Modern World
			Engineering
			Technology
			Impact of Science and Technology on Modern Society
		Glory of Ancient Indian Contribution to the World in Metrology, Science, and Technology
			Few of Ancient Indian Contributions to the World in Metrology, Science, and Technology
		Achievements/Success Stories of Modern India
		Downfall of Development of Science and Technology and Its Education in India
			Pre-Independence of India Era: Exploitation of Physical Raw Material and Intellectual Property
			After Independence of India Era: Exploitation of Physical Raw Material and Intellectual Capability
		Position of India Compared to the World in Science and Technology Development
		Convergence Approach to Build Modern India Through Development of Metrology, Science, Technology, and Their Education
			Encourage Discovery
			Promote Inventions
			Encourage and Promote Innovations
			Key Prerequisites to Invention and Innovation
			Promote and Encourage Indigenous Technology Development
		Conclusion
		References
	3 Quality: Introduction, Relevance, and Significance for Economic Growth
		Introduction
		Historical Aspects and Evolution of Quality
			Total Quality Management (TQM) in USA
			The Practices beyond TQM
			Quality: Perspectives of the Quality Experts
			Quality Beyond - QC, QA, QMS, TQM, Etc.
			The Concept of ``Standard´´ and ``Inspection´´ Control
			Development of Process for Quality Control
			The QMS During the Mid-twentieth Century
			Emergence of Japanese Company-Wide Quality Control (CWQC)
			Development of Total Quality Management
		Benefits of Quality Management (QM) and QM Tools and Methods
		Need for Quality Management and Relevance in Global Trade
		Conclusion
		References
	4 Accreditation in the Life of General Citizen of India
		Introduction
		NABL Legal Metrology Accreditation of Calibration Resources and Entities (NALM-ACRE) Recognition Program
		Government Approved Test Center (GATC) Program
		Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) Laboratories Accreditation
		Recognition of Food Testing Laboratories by Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI)
		Recognition of Testing Laboratories by Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (https://www.aped...
		Recognition of Testing Laboratories by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
		Recognition of Testing Laboratories by Other Regulators
		Conclusion
		References
	5 Quality Measurements and Relevant Indian Infrastructure
		Introduction
		Development of Measurement Systems
			The National Measurement System
		Relevant Indian Infrastructure
			Legal Framework
			National Metrology Institute
			Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
			Quality Council of India (QCI)
			Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC)
			Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA)
			Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
		Conclusion and Way Forward
		References
	6 An Insight on Quality Infrastructure
		Introduction
		Significance of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and G20 in QI
		Quality Infrastructure and Its Baselines
			Metrology
			Accreditation
			Standardization and Certification
		SWOT Analysis
		Updated GQII and Its Significance
		Discussion and Way Forward
		Conclusion
		Appendix
		References
Part II: Redefinition of SI Units and Its Implications
	7 The Quantum Reform of the International System of Units
		Introduction
		A Brief History of Time (with Our Apologies to the Late, Great Stephen Hawking (Hawking 1988))
		A Short History of Length
		A Light History of Mass
			Kibble Balance Method to Realize the Kilogram
			Silicon Sphere Method to Realize the Kilogram
		The Current Story of the Ampere
		The Rest of the Base Units: The Kelvin, Mole, and Candela
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	8 Realization of the New Kilogram Based on the Planck Constant by the X-Ray Crystal Density Method
		Introduction
		X-Ray Crystal Density Method
		Procedure of Realization of the Kilogram at NMIJ
			Sphere Volume Measurement by Optical Interferometry
			Sphere Surface Characterization by XPS and Ellipsometry
			Mass of Surface Layer
			Volume of Si Core
			Mass Deficit
			Lattice Constant
			Molar Mass
			Mass of Si Sphere
		Dissemination of Mass Standards Based on the 28Si-Enriched Spheres
		Small Mass Measurement Based on the Planck Constant
		Conclusion
		References
	9 Quantum Redefinition of Mass
		Introduction
		Weights and Measures in Ancient Times
		Mass Measurements in the Modern Era
		Artifact-Based Definition of Mass: Need to Change
		Events Leading to the Redefinition of the Kilogram
		Traceability of Mass Calibration in India
		Post-Redefinition and the Need for Establishing New Methods for Traceability
		Methods of Realization of New Definition of Kilogram
			The Josephson Voltage Standard
			The Quantum Hall Resistance Standard
				Kibble Balance
				Planck Balance
				Joule Balance
				The XRCD Method
				Twin Pressure Balance
		The International Status of Existing Primary Realization Methods (Fig. 11)
		Conclusion
		References
	10 Optical Frequency Comb
		Introduction
		Realizing Meter Using an Intelligent Method by Ruler of Light: mb
		What Is an Optical Frequency Comb and How Does It Work
		Practical Realization of Meter
		Experimental Setup
		Conclusions
		References
	11 Quantum Definition of New Kelvin and Way Forward
		Introduction
		Historical Prospects of Temperature Measurements
		The Redefinition of SI Kelvin
		Mise en Pratique (MeP-K) for the Realization of Kelvin
		Primary Thermometry Methods for the Realization and Dissemination of New Kelvin
			Acoustic Gas Thermometry (AGT)
			Dielectric Constant Gas Thermometry (DCGT)
			Refractive-Index Gas Thermometry
			Radiometric Thermometry
			Johnson Noise Thermometry (JNT)
				Doppler-Broadening Thermometry
		Implications and Way Forward
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	12 Realization of Candela
		Introduction
		A Brief History of Measurement of Light
		Realization of Candela
		The Path to Candela: Initial Realizations
		Candela Based on Blackbody Radiation
		Defining the Response Function of Human Eye
		Candela Based on Human Vision
		Candela and Defining Constant, Kcd
		Toward Quantum Candela
		Candela at Various NMIs
		Role of CSIR-NPL, India, in Disseminating Optical Radiation Standards
		Conclusion
		References
	13 The Mole and the New System of Units (SI)
		Introduction
		Brief Historical Survey of the Mole
		Motivation for and Impact of the Redefinition of the Mole
		Quantities and Constants Related to the Amount of Substance and Mole
		XRCD Method
		Silicon Crystal Production
		Molar Mass of Silicon Determined Using the Virtual-Element-IDMS Method
		Dissemination of the Mole
		Conclusion
		References
	14 Progress of Quantum Hall Research for Disseminating the Redefined SI
		Historical Context
			Introduction
			Predecessors for Quantum Hall Standards
			Expansion of QHR Device Capabilities
		The Graphene Era Begins
			Comparing Graphene to GaAs
			Establishing Graphene as a Global Resistance Standard
			Improvements in Measurement Infrastructure
		Expanding the Use of the Quantum Hall Effect in Graphene
			Assembly of p-n Junctions in Graphene-Based Devices
			Using Arrays to Expand the Parameter Space
			From DC to AC to the Quantum Ampere
		Future Improvements and the Quantum Anomalous Hall Effect
			Limitations to the Modern QHR Technology
			The Quantum Anomalous Hall Effect
			Conclusion
		References
	15 Quantum Pascal Realization from Refractometry
		Introduction
			Fixed Length Optical Cavity
			Variable Length Optical Cavity
		Development of Pressure Standard at NMIs
			National Institute of Standard and Technology (NIST)
			Istituto Nazionale di Ricerca Metrologica (INRIM)
				Method and System
				Interferometer´s Unbalance Measurement
				Pressure Measurement by Optical Technique
					Sensitivity Approach
					Absolute Refractive Index Approach
				Uncertainty Budget
					Sensitivity Approach
					Absolute Refractive Index Approach
			National Metrology Institute Japan (NMIJ)
				Experimental Setup
				Discrete Pressure Measurements
				Continuous Pressure Measurements
			Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science (KRISS)
				Fabrication of a Cavity
				Fabrication of a SM Polarized Laser
				Setup of the Laser Interferometer
			National Institute of Metrology (NIM)
				Experimental Setup
					Thermal Control System
					Optical Setup
				Principle for Pressure Measurement
				Performance of the NIM´s OIM
					FSR of the Measurement Cavity
					Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
					Creeping Effect of the FP Cavity
					Heat-Island Effect
					Pressure Measurements
				Uncertainty Evaluation
		Conclusion
		References
Part III: Applications of Time and Frequency Metrology
	16 Time and Frequency Metrology
		Basics of Time and Frequency Measurements
		Timekeeping and Timescales
		Standards of Time and Frequency
		Time and Frequency Transfer Techniques
		Summary
		References
	17 Atomic Timescales
		Introduction: A Brief History of Time Scales
		Atomic Timescale
			Clock Ensemble
			Averaged Timescale
			Paper Clock (Virtual Clock)
			Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
			The UTC(k) Timescales
			The Circular T of the BIPM
			Other Atomic Timescales
				The Rapid UTC, UTCr
				Terrestrial Time, TT
				Hybrid Atomic Timescales and the Redefinition of the SI Second
		Technical Requirements for Setting up a UTC(k) Laboratory
			The Most Used Atomic Clocks in UTC(k) Laboratories
				Cesium Beam Atomic Clock
				Hydrogen Maser
		Traceability to the SI Second
		Conclusions
		References
	18 Atomic Frequency Standards
		Introduction
		Brief History and Evolution of Clocks
		Classes of Atomic Frequency Standards
			Microwave Frequency Standards
				Cesium Beam Frequency Standards
				Cesium Fountain Frequency Standards
				Rubidium Frequency Standards
				Hydrogen Masers
			Optical Frequency Standards
				Neutral Atom Optical Frequency Standards
				Trapped Ion Optical Frequency Standards
		Applications
		Future and Beyond: Towards Redefinition of SI Second
		Conclusion
		References
	19 Precise Time Transfer Techniques: Part I
		Introduction
		Unidirectional Methods
		Bidirectional Methods
			Common-View Methods
		Telephone Time Dissemination Technique
		Improved Teleclock Receiver/Mobile Teleclock
			Network Time Dissemination
				Daytime Protocol
				Time Protocol
		Time Dissemination Using the Internet: NTP
			Network Time Protocol
			Development of NTP
		Basic Features of NTP
		Architecture of NTP
			Level: Stratum-O
			Level: Stratum-1
			Level: Stratum-2
			Level: Stratum-3
		NTP Message Format
		Algorithm
		NTP Security
		Modes of Operation
		NTP v4 Features
		Advantages of NTP Synchronization
		Accurate Time
		Reliable Time
		Security and Verifiable Audit Trail
		Ease of Use
			Time Dissemination Using the Internet: Precision Time Protocol (PTP)
		PTP Message Header Format
			Sync Message
			Delay_Req Message
			Follow_Up Message
			Delay_Resp Message
			Pdelay_Req Message
			Pdelay_Resp Message
			Pdelay_Resp_Follow_Up Message
			Management Message
		Applications of PTP Time Transfer
		Advantages of PTP
			Time and Frequency Transfer: White Rabbit
		Time Dissemination over Long-Wave Radio Waves
		Results
		Conclusion
		References
	20 Time Transfer via GNSS
		Introduction
		GNSS system
			Configuration of Constellations
			Clocks
			Signal Characteristics
			Relativistic Effects on Clocks in Orbit
		Working Principle of GNSS
		Limitation of GPS Accuracy
			Ephemeris and Satellite Clock Error
			Ionospheric Error (dion)
			Tropospheric Error (dtrop)
			Multipath Error (dmulti)
			Receiver Noise (drec)
			Combined Error
		Direct Access to Time from GNSS Receiver
		Improving Accuracy of Time Transfer
			Common View (CV)
			Concept of All in View (AV)
				Improving Accuracy of AV through IGS Network
			Concept of P3
			Concept of Carrier Phase
			Concept of PPP
		Comparison of GNSS Techniques
		NavIC on Timing Applications
		Concluding Remark
		Cross-References
		Reference
	21 Precise Time and Frequency Transfer: Techniques
		Introduction
		Basic Principle of Conventional TWSTFT
		SDR-Based TWSTFT
			DPN Method
			SDR Transfer with the Open-Loop Method
			TWSTFT Carrier Phase (TWCP) for Frequency Transfer
			``Software Ranging System (SRS)´´ Modem Developed by NICT (Fujieda et al. 2019, 2020)
		Delay Calibration of Twstft Links
			TWSTFT Calibration Using Portable TWSTFT Station
			TWSTFT Calibration Using GPS Traveling Calibration Equipment (TWSTFT 2012)
			Earth Station Delay Measurement Using Satellite Simulator (SATSIM)
			Calibration of TWSTFT Links by Triangle-Closure Condition
			The Calibration Issue of SDR TWSTFT Method (Jiang et al. 2018)
		Analysis of the Instabilities in TWSTFT
			Instability Sources of TWSTFT
			The Issue of Diurnals (Jiang et al. 2019)
		References
Part IV: Certified Reference Materials/Bharatiya Nirdeshak Dravya (BND): Need and Boon for Atma Nirbhar Bharat
	22 Certified Reference Materials (CRMs)
		References
	23 Bharatiya Nirdeshak Dravya for Antibiotics and Pesticide
		Introduction
		Pesticide´s Effect on Human Health
		(a) Types of Pesticides
		(b) Types of Antibiotics
		Pesticides and Antibiotics in Our Path
		Pesticides and Antibiotics CRMs and Their Importance
		Certified Reference Materials (CRM) and Quality Control
		Pesticide Metabolite Standards
		Pesticides and Antibiotics Reference Material (RM)
		Certified Reference Material (CRM)
		Metrological Traceability
		Legal Metrological Control
		Selection of CRMs
			Fit for Purposes
			Characteristics
			Legal Requirements
			Regulation on Transportation
			Safety of CRMs
			CRMs Producer
		Development of Pesticide and Antibiotics Reference Material
			Homogeneity Testing
			Determination of Assigned Value and Uncertainty
			Stability Testing
			Moisture Content
			Process of Assigning the Certified Values
			Certification of CRMs
			Assessment of Participant´s Analytical Results
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
	24 Bharatiya Nirdeshak Dravya for Assessing Mechanical Properties
		Introduction
		Hardness Tests
			Brinell Hardness Test Method as per ASTM E10 and ISO 6506
			Rockwell Test as per ASTM E18 and ISO 6508
			Vickers Hardness Test as per ASTM 92 and ISO 6507
			Knoop Hardness Test
			Scope of Hardness BNDs
			Experimental Procedures Followed for the Development of Hardness Block BNDs at CSIR-NPL
				Procedure for Rockwell Hardness Measurement
				Procedure for Vickers Hardness Test
			Instructions for Storage, Commutability, Precautions, and Use for Handling
		Tensile Test
			Impact of Tensile BND
		Fatigue
		Toughness
		Hardenability
		Conclusions
		References
	25 Role of Certified Reference Materials (CRMs) in Standardization, Quality Control, and Quality Assurance
		Introduction
		Measurement Units and International System
		Measurement Standards and Reference Materials
		Classification, Selection, and Use of Reference Materials
		ISO Documents (Guides and Standards) on Reference Materials and Important Definitions
			ISO Guides and Standards
			RM and CRM Definition
		Role of Reference Materials in Standardization, QC, and QA (ISO Requirements)
			ISO/IEC 17025:2017 Requirements: PDCA Approach
			Metrological Traceability and Measurement Uncertainty
			Method Selection, Verification, and Validation
			Validity of Results
			Monitoring and Review
			System Improvement
		ISO 17034:2016 on Production of Reference Materials
			About ISO 17034:2016
			ISO 17034:2016 Criteria for Competence of RMPs
			Facilities, Storage, and Environmental Conditions for Production and Distribution of RMs
			Homogeneity, Stability, and Value Assignment
		Indian Reference Materials
			Bharatiya Nirdeshak Dravyas (BNDs)
			Collaboration between CSIR-NPL and the National Council for Cement and Building Materials (NCCBM)
		Role of Reference Materials in Production, Quality Control, and Quality Assurance in Manufacturing Industry
			Quality Control in Cement Industry
				Sampling and Inspection (IS 3535:1986 Requirements) in Cement Manufacture
				BIS Scheme of Testing and Inspection (BIS-STI): Requirement of Calibration and RMs
		Conclusion
		References
	26 Precious Metals: Bharatiya Nirdeshak Dravya for Pure and Sure Jewelry
		Introduction
			Global Market
			Possible Impurities
			Role of CRMs and Need for BNDs
		Methods/Techniques of Testing Purity and Concentration of Metal
			Gold Purity Testing
				Fire Assay Method
				Gravimetric Method
			Silver Purity Testing
				Gravimetric Method
				Volumetric Method
		Supporting/Secondary Test Methods
			X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)
			Trace Element Analysis
				Flame Atomic Absorption (AA)
				Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES)
				Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS)
				Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA)
		Indian Reference Material (Bharatiya Nirdeshak Dravya-BND)
		Future Plans for High Purity Gold and Silver Standard
		Conclusions
		References
	27 Indian Reference Materials for Calibration of Sophisticated Instruments
		Introduction
		Why Calibration?
		Role of Reference Materials
		Why Need of Indian Reference Materials?
		Powder X-Ray Diffractometer (PXRD) and Its Applications
			Working Principal of PXRD Instrument
			Indian Reference Materials (IRMs) for PXRD
			Reference Materials for Calibration of Various Parameters in PXRD
				Line Position Calibration with ``Si´´ Powder
				Line Shape Calibration with LaB6 Powder
				Quantitative Analysis with α-Alumina
		Calibration of Infrared (FT-IR) Spectrophotometer Using BND2004
			Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) Spectrophotometer and Its Applications
			The Working Principle
			Calibration of FT-IR Instrument and Reference Standard
			Material Preparation
			Indian Reference Material BND2004
		Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis) Spectroscopy and Its Applications
			Source of Light
			Wavelength Selection
			Sample Holder
			Detectors
		Applications
			Pharmaceutical Analysis
			Food Analysis
			Identification of Unknown Sample
			Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis
			Concentration Determination
			Bandgap Estimation
			Size Determination in Metal and Metal Oxide
			Size Determination in Semiconductor Nanoparticles
		Instrument Calibration
		Conclusions
		References
	28 Certified Reference Material for Qualifying Biomaterials in Biological Evaluations
		Introduction
			International Standards for Biological Evaluations: ISO 10993
			Biomaterial Classification and Selection of RMs
			Metals
				Metallic Reference Materials
			Polymers
				Polymeric Reference Materials
			Ceramics
				Ceramic Reference Materials
		Evaluation Matrices and Methods of Evaluation
		Reference Materials in Biological Evaluation
			Solvent/Vehicle Control
			Experimental Controls
			Controls for Comparison
		Selection and Preparation of RM
		Maintaining RM Facility and Accreditation for RM Production
			Accreditation for RM Facility
		Market Availability and Use
		Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	29 Alloys as Certified Reference Materials (CRMs)
		Introduction: Why Metal CRMs?
		Ferrous Alloy Systems
		Nonferrous Alloy Systems
		Standardization in Measurements: Pathway to CRMs/SRMs
		``NIST´´-Traceable Ferrous and Nonferrous SRMs/CRMs
		``BAM´´ Traceable Ferrous and Nonferrous CRMs
		``NMIJ´´-Traceable Ferrous and Nonferrous CRMs
		``UK-Alloy Standards-LGC Standards´´: Ferrous and Nonferrous CRMs
		``CSIR-NPL, India´´: The Developing Economy/NMI and Prospects of Ferrous and Nonferrous CRMs
		Summary and Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	30 CRMs
		Introduction
		About CRMs
		Cement-Related CRMS
		Requirement/Consumption of CRMS in Indian Cement Industry
		Production Process of CRM
			Chemical Parameters
			Physical Parameters
				Material Selection and Verification
				Material Processing
				Packaging
				Homogeneity
				Characterization
					Description of Method for Determining Blaine Fineness
				Stability
				Certification
		Impact on Import/Export
		Requirement of New CRMS
		Future Goals
		Role in Indian Economy/GDP
		Conclusion
		References
	31 Petroleum-Based Indian Reference Materials (BND)
		Introduction
		Significance of Reference Standard and International Network
		Significance of Indian Reference Standard
		Significance of NMI of India in Petroleum-Based BNDs
		Petroleum Products (BNDs)
			Physical, Chemical, and Physicochemical Parameter-Based BNDs
				Density
				Viscosity
				Flash Point
				Distillation
				Pour Point
		Dynamic Viscosity BNDTM and BND of Non-Newtonian Fluids Using Magneto-Rheometer and their Instrumentation
		Dynamic Viscosity BND of Newtonian Fluids (Silicon Oils)
		Multi-Way Principal Components Analysis (MPCA)
		Parallel Factor Analysis (PARAFAC)
		Kohonen´s Self-Organizing Map (SOM)
		Conclusion
		References
Part V: Industrial Metrology: Opportunities and Challenges
	32 Industrial Metrology
		Introduction
		Industrial Revolution
		Some of the Application-Oriented Trends in Industrial Metrology
		Contribution of Metrology for Achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
			Metrology and the SDGs for Good Health and Well-Being for People (Goal 3): ``Ensure Healthy Lives and Promote Well-Being for A...
			Metrology and the SDGs for Ensuring Access to Affordable, Reliable, Sustainable, and Modern Energy for All (Goal 7)
			Metrology and the SDGs for Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure (Goal 9): ``Build Resilient Infrastructure, Promote Inclus...
			Metrology and the SDGs for Climate Action (Goal 13) to Take Urgent Action to Combat Climate Change and Its Impacts by Regulati...
		Metrological Industrial Measurements and Their Significance for Indian Infrastructure
			What Needs to Be Done to Ensure Good Quality Measurement
			How This Is Critical in the International Market Given the Standards Applicable
			What Can Be Done by Department Heads/District Collectors in This Regard
		Conclusion
		References
	33 Importance of Ultrasonic Testing and Its Metrology Through Emerging Applications
		Introduction and Historical Background
		Sources for the Generation of Ultrasonic Waves
		Ultrasonic Metrology
		Techniques and Systems for Ultrasonic Testing
			Concrete Testing
			Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer Testing (EMAT)
			Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo and Through Transmission Testing
			Air Coupled Ultrasonic Testing
			Ultrasonic Interferometers for Liquid Testing
			Laser Ultrasonic Testing
		Applications of Ultrasound
		Recent Technologies
		Ultrasonic Metrological Activities and Technologies at CSIR-NPL
		Conclusion
		References
	34 Mechanical and Thermo-physical Properties of Rare-Earth Materials
		Introduction
		Ultrasonic NDT: Material Characterization Technique
			Ultrasonic Metrology
			Rare-Earth Materials
			Monopnictides (Pn) and Monochalcogenides (Ch)
			Applications of Ultrasonics in Research
		Measurement Techniques for Metrology Solutions
			Picosecond Ultrasonics (PULSETM Technology)
			Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
		Theoretical Evaluation of Elastic Constants and Related Parameters
			Elastic Constants
			Higher-Order Elastic Constants
			Pressure Derivatives
			Mechanical Properties
			Born Stability Criteria
			Cauchy´s Relations
			Elastic Waves in Anisotropic Materials
			Breazeale´s Nonlinearity Parameter, β
			Grüneisen Parameters
		Ultrasonic Attenuation
			Attenuation Due to e-p Interaction
			Attenuation Due to p-p Interaction
			Loss Due to Thermoelastic Mechanism
			Attenuation Due to Dislocation Damping
			Thermal Conductivity
		Computational Analysis
			Elastic Constants
				SOECs of Group IIIrd Phosphides
				Ultrasonic Velocity
				Grüneisen Parameters
		Current Applications
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		Appendix A
		Appendix B
		References
	35 Hardness Metrology
		Introduction
		Metrological Chain for Hardness Test
			International Level
			National Levels
			The Main Structure of Primary Hardness Testing Machine
		Conventional Static Hardness Methods
			Direct Calibration
				Force Calibration
				Calibration of Measuring System for Brinell Hardness
				Calibration of the Measuring System for Vickers Hardness
				Calibration of Depth Measuring System for Rockwell Hardness
				Brinell Ball Indenter Verification
				Verification of the Diamond Vickers Indenter Geometry
				Direct Calibration and Verification of the Rockwell Diamond Indenter
				Verification of Testing Cycle
				Uncertainty of Measurements
			Indirect Calibration for Brinell Hardness
				Uncertainty of the Brinell Indirect Calibration
			Indirect Calibration for Vickers Hardness
				Uncertainty of the Vickers Indirect Calibration
				Uncertainty of the Rockwell Indirect Calibration
		Advanced Instrumented Indentation Testing
			Fields of Application
			Test Cycle
			Measurement Uncertainty
		Dynamic Hardness
		References
	36 Torque Metrology
		Introduction
		Definition of Torque
		Traceability of Torque Measurement
		Torque Realization
			Deadweight Type Torque Standard Machine
			Force Transducer Type Torque Standard Machine
			Reference (Comparison) Type Torque Calibration Machine
			Electromagnetic Force Type Torque Standard Machine
		Torque Measuring Devices
		Intercomparisons of Torque
		Reference Torque Wrenches
		Torque Testing Machines
		Hand Torque Tools
		Multicomponent Measurement
		Dynamic Torque Measurement
		Summary
		References
	37 Recent Trends and Diversity in Ultrasonics
		Ultrasonics: An Introduction
			Physical Properties of Ultrasonic Waves
			Generation and Reception of Ultrasonic Waves
				Piezoelectric Method
				Laser Method
				Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT)
			Ultrasonic Non-destructive Testing (NDT) Methods
				Contact Method
				Immersion Method
			Techniques of Ultrasonic NDT
				Pulse Echo System
				Through Transmission System
				Resonance System
			Techniques for Velocity Measurement (Review of Literature)
				Basic Pulse Echo Methods
				Continuous Wave Method
				Optical Method
		Motivation
		Diversity in Ultrasonics and Emerging Trends
			Applications of Ultrasonic Imaging
			Emerging Technology
			Futuristic Promising Technology
		Conclusion
		References
	38 Calibration of Snow and Met Sensors for Avalanche Forecasting
		Introduction
		Avalanche Forecasting
		Needs and Types of Snow and Meteorological Sensors
		Automatic Weather Station
		Examples of a Few Sensors with the Source of Error
			Snow Precipitation Gauge
			Wind Sensor
			Air Temperature Sensor
		Need for Sensor Calibration from a Snow Avalanche Perspective
		Calibration Methods
			Principles of Calibration
			Traceability
		Uncertainties in Calibration and/or Measurement
			Measurement Uncertainty
		Uncertainty Budget
			How Uncertainty Budgets Improve Measurement Quality
			Example of the Uncertainty Budget
			Test Uncertainty Ratio (TUR)
			Test Uncertainty
			Calibration Hierarchy
		Sensor-Specific Calibration Systems
			Wind Speed Sensor Calibration System
			Automatic Calibration of Temperature Sensors
			Temperature and Relative Humidity Calibration System
			Icing Cloud Calibration of Icing Wind Tunnel
				Snow Conditions
				Icing/Snow Cloud Parameter
				The Main Measurement Objectives to Be Made to Ensure Calibration with the Selected Instrumental Payload Are as Follows
				Humidity
				Particle Size Distribution (PSD)
				Particle Morphology
				The Snow Cloud Uniformity Assessment
				Modes of Calibration
			Aerothermal Calibration of Icing Wind Tunnel
		References cum Literature Review
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	39 Pressure and Its Measurement
		Introduction
		Pressure
		Units of Pressure
			SI Unit of Pressure
			Imperial Units
			Liquid Column Units
			Atmospheric Units
			Non-SI Unit of Pressure
			Pressure Unit Conversion Standards
		Types of Pressure
			Absolute Pressure
			Gauge Pressure
			Differential Pressure
			Hydrostatic Pressure
			Static Pressure
			Dynamic Pressure
			Stagnation Pressure
			Explosion Pressure
			Negative Pressure
			Surface Pressure
			Pressure of an Ideal Gas
			Vapor Pressure
			Fluid Pressure
			Pressure Ranges
		Pressure-Measuring Instruments
			Liquid Column Gauges
			McLeod Gauge
			Aneroid Gauges
				Bourdon Tube Gauge
				Diaphragm
				Bellow Gauge
			Differential Pressure-Measuring Devices
			Deadweight Piston Gauge
			Electronic Pressure Gauges
				EPG Types by Sensing Principle
				EPG Types by Output
				Pressure Sensor Metrological Characteristics
					Signal Offset
					Sensitivity
					Precision
					Hysteresis
					Long-Term Stability (Drift)
					Accuracy and Uncertainty
					Influence Quantities
					Calibration of Pressure Sensors
			MEMS Pressure Sensors
			Thermal Conductivity Pressure Gauges
				Pirani Gauge
			Ionization Gauge
			Capacitive Pressure Gauges Using Dielectric Material
			High-Pressure Measurement (Greater than 7000 Bar)
		Measurement Standards and Facilities
		Conclusion
		References
	40 Traceable Synchrophasor Data for Smart Grid Metrology and Its Application in Protection and Control
		Introduction
		Electrical Power System
			Indian Power Grid
		Synchrophasors
		Wide Area Monitoring System (WAMS)
			WAMS: Importance and Application
			WAMS in the Indian Power Grid
			Phasor Measurement Unit
				Time Synchronization in PMU
		The IEEE Synchrophasor Standard
		PMU Calibration System
			CSIR-NPL PMU-CAL System
			Traceability of PMU-CAL System
			Synchrophasor Calibration
		Automation and Load Management of Power Grid
		Conclusion
		References
Part VI: Industry 4.0 and Engineering Metrology: A Perspective
	41 Using AI in Dimensional Metrology
		Introduction
		Dimensional Metrology
		Artificial Intelligence
			Neural Networks
			Self-Organizing Maps
			Genetic Algorithm
			Cellular Automata
			Expert Systems
			Bee Colony Algorithm
			Fuzzy Logic
			Simulated Annealing
		Some AI Applications
			Thermal Expansion Estimation
			Flick Standard
		Prospects of AI
			Spirit Vials Calibration
				Digital Twins
		Conclusion
		References
	42 Artificial Intelligence
		Introduction
		Smart Sensor
		Artificial Intelligence Relevance and Implications
		Implication of Industry 4.0 and Industrial AI´s Impact on Manufacturing
		Metrology and Impact of Industry 4.0
		Challenges in Industry 4.0 and AI
		Artificial Intelligence Application
		AI in India
		Conclusion
		References
	43 Fusion of Smart Meteorological Sensors, Remote Sensing Techniques, and IoT in Context of Industry 4.0
		Introduction
			Significant Things of Industry 4.0
			Industry 4.0 Standards and Guidelines
				Interoperability
				Virtualization
				Decentralization
				Real-Time Capability
				Service Orientation
				Modularity
		Industry 4.0 for Sustainable Growth and Smart Environment Monitoring
		IoT-Enabled Meteorological Sensors and Remote Sensing
		Analysis of the Web and Social Media
		Case Study
			Atmospheric Boundary Layer Height (ABLH)
			Meteorological Parameters Analysis
			Correlation Analysis
		Conclusion
		References
	44 Machine Learning in Neuromuscular Disease Classification
		Introduction
		Detection and Processing of EMG Signal
			Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
			Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD)
			Wavelet Transform (WT)
		Classification Approaches
			K-Nearest Neighbors (kNN)
			Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)
			Support Vector Machine (SVM)
			Deep Learning
		Diagnosing Neuromuscular Disorders by Machine Learning
		Uncertainty Analysis
			Uncertainty in SVM
		Cross-References
		Conclusion
		References
Part VII: Metrology in Additive Manufacturing: Present Scenario and Challenges
	45 Role of Metrology in the Advanced Manufacturing Processes
		Introduction
		Historical Evolution of Metrology
		State of the Art of Metrology in Advanced Manufacturing
			Microtechnology
			Nanotechnology
			Additive Manufacturing
		In-Line Metrology
			On-Machine Metrology
		Metrology for Economic Growth
		Conclusion
		References
	46 Additive Manufacturing: A Brief Introduction
		Introduction
		Classification of AM Techniques
			Vat Photopolymerization
			Material Extrusion
			Binder Jetting
			Powder Bed Fusion
			Direct Energy Deposition
			Sheet Lamination
			Material Jetting
		Printing Characteristics of AM Techniques
			Time of Build
			Resolution of Feature
			Quality of Surface
			Support and Anchors
			Post-Processing
		Materials Used in Different AM Techniques
			Polymers
			Metals
			Concrete
			Ceramics
		Applications of AM
			In Construction
			Automotive Industry
			Aerospace Industry
			In the Medical Field
				Bio-Fabrication
				In Surgery
				Pharmaceutics/Drug Delivery
				Dentistry
		Challenges and Future Scope in AM
			Future Scope
		Conclusion
		References
	47 Additive Manufacturing Metrology
		Introduction
		Background: Metrology - Measurement and Inspection Methods
			Dimensional Metrology
				Linear Measurement
				Angular Measurement
				Comparators
			Surface Metrology
			Coordinate Metrology
				Coordinate Measuring Machine
				X-Ray Computed Tomography
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Geometrical Dimensioning and Tolerancing
			Measurement of Material Properties
			In Situ Metrology
		Role of Metrology in AM
		Challenges in Metrology of AM
			Shape Complexity
			Effect of Post-Processing on Metrology and Inspection
			Surface Texture Metrology
			Powder Measurement
			Internal Feature Metrology
		Metrology and Inspection Methods for AM
			Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation
				Computed Tomography
				Coordinate Measuring Machine
				Structured Light Testing
				Ultrasonic Testing
				Interferometry
				Scanning Force Microscopy
				Optical Profilometry
				Neutron Diffraction
				Laser-Ultrasonic Testing
				X-Ray Computed Tomography
		Conclusion
		References
	48 Metrological Assessments in Additive Manufacturing
		Introduction
		Metrology Need for Different Phases of AM
			Preprocess Measurements
			Process and Equipment Measurements
			Modeling and Simulation
			Post-process Measurement
			Qualification and Certification
		Advanced Measurement Methods
			X-Ray Computed Tomography (XCT)
			In-Line Metrology
			Robots
			Laser Trackers
		Present Organization in AM
		Challenges
		Conclusion
		References
	49 Advances in Additive Manufacturing and Its Numerical Modelling
		Introduction
			The Additive Manufacturing File Format
		Modelling Considerations in AM
		Numerical Modelling in AM
			Heat Source Modelling
				Thermal Model
				Heat Source Models
			Residual Stresses and Distortion
				Mode of Residual Stress in AM
				Mode of Distortion in AM
			Melt Pool Characteristics
			Surface Characteristics Modelling
			Microstructure Modelling Approaches
			Porosity Modelling
			Material Properties Modelling
			Topology Optimization
		Conclusion and Future Scopes
		References
Part VIII: Digital Transformations in Metrology: A Pathway for Future
	50 Role of IoT in Smart Precision Agriculture
		Introduction
		Sensors
		Sensor Associated with Smart Agriculture
			Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
			Intrusion Detection
			Livestock Monitoring
			Greenhouse
		Network Architecture
			Link Layer Protocols
				IEEE 802.11
				LoRAWAN
				WIMAX 802.16
				Zigbee
				Bluetooth
				Cellular 2G/3G/4G Mobile Network
				NB-IoT
			Network Layer
				IPv6
				6LoWPAN
			Transport Layer
				Transport Control Protocol (TCP)
				User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
			Application Layer Protocol
				Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT)
				Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)
				Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP)
		Technologies in Agricultural IoT
			Cloud and Edge Computing
			Big Data Analysis
			Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)
			Robotics
			Machine Learning
			Communication Protocol
		Application of IoT in Agricultural Sector
			Precision Farming
			Crop Monitoring
			Disease Detection
			Greenhouse Monitoring
			Fertigation Monitoring
			Farm Machine Monitoring
			Livestock Monitoring
			Field Fire Detection
			Drip Irrigation
		Case Study
		Challenges of IoT in Agriculture
		Conclusion
		Reference
	51 Soft Metrology
		Introduction
		Soft Metrology Systems: Approaches, Structure, and Applications
			Structure of a Soft Metrology System
			Soft Metrology System Applications
		Challenges in Soft Metrology Applications
			Soft Metrology System Implementation: An Example of Flow Rate Measurement
			Measurement Uncertainty in Soft Metrology Systems
			Computational Model Uncertainty
				Epistemic Uncertainty
				Aleatory Uncertainty
		Discussion and Final Considerations
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
Part IX: Optics in Metrology: Precision Measurement Beyond Expectations and Nano Metrology
	52 Optical Dimensional Metrology
		Introduction
			Metrology
				Measurement Standards
				Traceability to SI Standards
			Dimensional Metrology
			Light and Its Interaction
				Refraction
				Reflection
				Diffraction
				Interference
		Optical Techniques
			Ray Optics
				Telescope
				Image Forming
				Microscope
			Wave Optics
				Spectroscopy
				Holography
		Optical Dimensional Measurements
			Optical Comb
			Linear Measurement
				Displacement Laser Interferometry
				End Gauge Block Interferometer
				Line Scale Measurement
			Angular Measurement
				Autocollimator
				Laser Tracker
			Form Measurement
			Complex Measurement
				Spackle Interferometry
				Fringe Projection
		Summary and Future Prospective
		Conclusion
		References
	53 3D Imaging Systems for Optical Metrology
		Introduction
		Measurement Principle
		Sources of Uncertainty
		Measurement Device
			Spot Scanner
			Stripe Scanner
			Structured Light
			Handheld
			Multi-View Configuration
			Combining Pose and Surface Measurement
		Software
			Rigid Registration (Step 1)
			Features Extraction (Step 2)
				Feature Fitting (Step 2.1)
				GD&T/ISO-GPS Specification Extraction (Step 2.2)
		Applications
			Metallic Additive Manufacturing
			Assembly Assisted by 3D Imaging Systems - Jigless Assembly
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	54 Speckle Metrology in Dimensional Measurement
		Introduction
		Digital Simulation of Speckle
		Speckle Photography
			Fourier Transform of Speckle Double Exposure
				In-Plane Displacement
				Out-of-Plane Displacement
			Speckle Cross-Correlation
			Extending the Measurement Capabilities of Speckle Photography
		Speckle Interferometry
			Fourier Transform and Phase Unwrapping
		Future Prospective in the Field of Speckle Metrology
		Traceability to SI Unit
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	55 Necessity of Anatomically Real Numerical Phantoms in Optical Metrology
		Introduction
		Tissue Optical Properties
		Types of Phantoms
			Aqueous/Liquid Phantoms
			Solid Phantoms
			Hydrogel Phantoms
			Animal Phantoms
		Material-Based Phantoms
			Silicone Phantoms
			Polarizing/Depolarizing Phantoms
			Fibrin Phantoms
			PVA-C Phantoms
			Tissue-Engineered Phantoms
			Ex Vivo Tissues
		Materials for Optical Phantoms and Their Durability
		Conclusion
		References
	56 Microscopy Using Liquid Lenses for Industrial and Biological Applications
		Introduction
		Principle of Optical Microscopy
		Important Parameters in Optical Microscopy
		Types of Optical Microscopy
			Non-Interferometry-Based Microscopic Metrology Techniques
			Interferometry-Based Microscopic Metrology Techniques (Quantitative Microscopy)
		Application Areas of Quantitative Microscopy
		Depth of Focus and Field of View Challenges in Quantitative Microscopy
		Techniques for Expanding the Depth of Focus in Quantitative Microscopy
			Wavefront Coding
			Aperture Apodization
			Image Fusion
			Multiple Focal Plane Microscopy
			Multiple Focus Microscopy
			Wavelength Scanning Method
			Artificial Intelligence-Based Methods
			Numerical Refocusing Using Digital Holographic Microscopy
		Adaptive Optics for EDOF Imaging
		Extended Focus Quantitative Microscopy Using Liquid Lenses
		Liquid Lenses in Microscopy
		Evaluation of Uncertainty of Measurement
			Factors Affecting Measurement and Leading to Uncertainty of Measurement
		Conclusion
		References
Part X: Metrology for Advanced Communication
	57 Quantum Microwave Measurements
		Introduction
		Rydberg Atoms
			Atom-Photon Interaction
			Electromagnetically Induced Transparency (EIT)
			Autler-Townes Splitting (ATS)
			EIT and ATS in Three-Level Atomic System
		Utilizing Advanced Laser-Atom-Interaction Phenomena in Microwave Applications
			Rydberg Atom as E-Field Sensor
			Rydberg Atom as Mixer
			Rydberg Atom as a Receiver for Communication
		Fabrication Methods of MEMS Alkali Vapor Cells
			Filling of Pure Alkali Metals
				Pipetting
				Glassblowing
			Chemical Reactions
				On-Chip Chemical Reaction
				Off-Chip Chemical Reaction
				UV-Induced Chemical Reaction
			Off-Chip and On-Chip Dispensing
				Off-Chip Dispensing Using Eutectic Bonding
				On-Chip Dispensing Using Anodic Bonding
		Conclusion
		References
	58 Electromagnetic Metrology for Microwave Absorbing Materials
		Introduction
		Electrical Properties of Materials
		Microwave Absorption Principles
		Material Characterizations
			Characterization of Material Bulk Parameters
		Measurement Uncertainty
		Applications of Microwave Materials as Absorbers
			EMI/EMC
			EM Shielding
			Radar Absorbing Materials for RCS Reduction
			Conclusion
		References
	59 Phased Array Antenna for Radar Application
		Introduction
			A Little Bit of History
			Radar Principle of Operation
			Types of Radar
			Antenna
		Phased Array Antenna
		Involved Technologies In AESAs
			Radome
			Antenna Technology
			T/R Module Technology
			Thermal Design, Reliability, and Heat Transfer Technologies
			Beamformer Technology
		Phased Array Calibration and Assessment
		Conclusion
		References
	60 Antennas for mm-wave MIMO RADAR
		Introduction
		MIMO RADAR Working Principle
		Overview of Antenna System for Automotive RADAR Application
		Integration Challenges of Automotive MIMO RADAR Antenna in a Vehicle
		Conclusion
		References
	61 Radar Cross-Section (RCS) Estimation and Reduction
		Introduction
		Basic Principles of Radar Cross-Section (RCS)
			Estimation of RCS
			RCS Reduction
				Methods to Minimize Reflectivity Using RAM/RAS
				RCS Reduction in Antenna/Array
		Conclusion
		References
Part XI: Environmental Metrology
	62 Environmental Metrology
		References
	63 Physical Quantities of Sound and Expanding Demands for Noise Measurement
		Introduction
		Basic Physical Quantities of Sound and Related Terminology
			Sound Pressure and Frequency Weighting
				Sound Pressure
				Frequency-Weighted Sound Pressure
			Particle Velocity
			Sound Intensity
			Sound Power
			Sound Fields
				Overview of Sound Fields
				Pressure Field
				Free Sound Field
				Diffuse Sound Field
		Sound Measuring Instruments and Related Equipment
			Condenser Microphone
				Mechanical Structure
				Microphone Sensitivity
				Classification of Condenser Microphones
				Usage of the Condenser Microphone
			Sound Level Meter
			Sound Calibrator
			Sound Intensity Probe
			Reference Sound Source
		Environmental Noise Measurement Based on Sound Pressure
			Overview of Environmental Noise Measurement
			Classification of Environmental Noise by Time Fluctuation
			Indicators of Environmental Noise Based on the Sound Pressure Level
				Time-Weighted and Frequency-Weighted Sound Pressure Level
				Maximum Time-Weighted and Frequency-Weighted Sound Pressure Level
				Sound Exposure Level
				Equivalent Continuous Sound Pressure Level
				N Percentage Exceedance Level
		Measurement of Noise Sources Based on the Sound Power
			Overview of Sound Power Measurement
				Measurement Based on Sound Pressure in the Hemi-Free Field
				Measurement Based on Sound Pressure in the Diffuse Field
				Measurement Based on Sound Intensity
		Calibration of Acoustic Measuring Instruments and their Measurement Traceability
			Traceability System of Acoustic Standards
			Primary Calibration of Condenser Microphones
				Pressure Sensitivity Calibration by Reciprocity Method
				Pressure Sensitivity Calibration by Laser Pistonphone Method
				Free-Field Sensitivity Calibration by Reciprocity Method
			Secondary Calibration of Acoustic Measuring Instruments
				Calibration of Microphone Pressure Sensitivity by Comparison Method
				Calibration of Microphone Free-Field Sensitivity by Comparison Method
				Calibration of Sound Level Meter
				Calibration of Sound Calibrator
				Calibration of Reference Sound Source
		Recent Advances in Acoustic Measurement
			New Noise Sources: Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Noise Measurement
			Alternative Use of Sound: Infrasound
		References
	64 Strategies and Implications of Noise Pollution Monitoring, Modelling, and Mitigation in Urban Cities
		Introduction
		Noise Monitoring Studies
		Noise Prediction Models
			Noise Prediction Using Mathematical Models
			Time-Series Prediction and Forecasting Approach
		Noise Mapping: Strategy and Implications
			Strategy and Implications
			Noise Mapping Software
		Ambient Noise Standards
		Noise Impact Assessment
		Noise Pollution in Mining Sector and Construction Activities
			Noise Assessment in Mines
			Noise Prediction in Mining Area
		Noise Control
		Practical Implications and Recommendations
		Conclusions
		References
	65 Development of Calibrated and Validated SODAR with Reference of Air Quality Management
		Introduction
		Atmospheric Boundary Layer
			Need for ABL Studies
			Monitoring Techniques for ABL
		SODAR As a Monitoring Technique
			Mechanism of SODAR and Generation of Echogram
		Calibration and Validation of SODAR System
		SODAR Application in Air-Pollution Warning System
			Method of Determining ABL Height Using SODAR Echogram
			SODAR Measurement at Delhi Region
		Comparison of the ABL Height of SODAR and MERRA-2
		SODAR Application in Determining the Pollution Loading Capacity of the Region
		Conclusion
		Future Scope
		References
	66 Measurements of Indoor Air Quality
		Introduction
		IAQ and Potential Pollutants
			Investigation of Indoor Air Quality: A Scientific Approach for Better Environment
				Planning
				Data Assembling
				Analyzing the Data
				Reporting of Probable Outcomes
				Contribution Support
			IAQ Guidelines and Standards
			Monitoring System for IAQ
			Overview of Sampling Devices
				Selecting Measurement Devices
			Strategies Used for IAQ Measurement and Monitoring
				Material Development for IAQ Devices
				Advanced IAQ Monitoring Technologies
					Measuring IAQ with Low-Cost Sensors (LCS)
					WSN-Based Systems
					IoT-Based Systems
				Other Technologies
		Indoor Air Quality and Modeling
			Statistical Models
			Mass Balance Models (MBM)
			Computation Fluid Dynamics Models
		Improvement of Indoor Air Quality
			Source Control Methods
			Ventilation Improvement System
				Air Cleaner Techniques for Improving IAQ
			Potted Plants
		Smart Home for IAQ Control
		Way Forward
		Conclusion
		References
	67 Instruments for Monitoring Air Pollution and Air Quality
		Introduction
		Monitoring Air Pollution and Air Quality
		Source Emission Monitoring
			Extractive Type Manual Sampling
			Sampling Port Holes and Platform
			Continuous Emission Monitoring
		Ambient Air Quality Monitoring
			Manual Samplers
			Instruments for Monitoring of SPM
				Instruments for Monitoring of RSPM or PM10
				Instruments for Monitoring of PM2.5
				Instruments for Monitoring Ultrafine Particulate Matter or PM1
				Gaseous Sampling Attachments
				Instruments for Monitoring of Heavy Metals
			Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Devices
				Continuous Measurement of Sulfur Dioxide
				Continuous Measurement of Oxides of Nitrogen
				Continuous Measurement of Ammonia
				Continuous Measurement of Ozone
				Continuous Measurement of Carbon Monoxide
				Continuous Measurement of PM10/PM2.5
				Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance (TEOM)
			Sensor-Based Techniques for Monitoring Ambient Air
			Air Quality Monitoring Using Satellites
		Personal Exposure and Work Zone Air Quality Monitoring
			Personal Samplers
			Handy Samplers
			VOC or Hydrocarbon Samplers
		Indoor Air Quality Monitoring
		Local Meteorology
		Noise Monitoring
		Maintenance and Calibration of Air Quality Monitoring Instruments
			Preventive Maintenance of Manual Samplers
				PM10 and PM2.5 Samplers
				Stack Samplers
				Meteorological Instruments
			Calibration
		Conclusions
		References
	68 Traceability in Analytical Environmental Measurements
		Introduction
		Traceability in Analytical Environmental Measurements
			Stated References/Documented Standards in Environmental Measurements
			The Unbroken Chain of Comparisons in Environmental Measurements
			Uncertainty in Environmental Measurements
			Quality Assurance/Quality Control in Environmental Measurements
			Method Validation in Environmental Measurements
				Selectivity
				Linearity (Working Range)
					Calibration
					Standard Addition
					External Standard
					Internal Standard
				Limit of Detection (LOD)/Limit of Quantitation (LOQ)
				Accuracy/Trueness
				Ruggedness (Robustness)
				Precision
			Tools to Validate Analytical Methods
				Blanks
				Routine Test Samples
				Spiked Material/Solution
				Incurred Material
				Reagents and Solutions
				Certified Reference Materials (CRMs)/Reference Materials (RMs)
			Proficiency Testing
		Analytical Methods in Environmental Analysis
		Evaluation of Uncertainty in Environmental Measurements
		Environmental Sampling and Chemical Analysis
			Sampling of the Aerosols
				Monitoring Instrument
			Steps to Determine Uncertainty Associated with Calculation of Mass Concentration of PM2.5
			Chemical Analysis
				Uncertainty Calculations in Analytical Determination of BaP in PM2.5
			Defining the Measurand
		Identification of all the Uncertainty Sources Affecting the Variables of the Measurand and Converting Them into Standard Uncer...
			Determining Combined Uncertainty
			Determining Expanded Uncertainty
			Reporting Result
		Conclusion
		References
	69 Particulate Matter Measurement Techniques
		Introduction
		Manual PM Measurement Method
			Inertial Impaction
				Cascade Impactor
				Virtual Impactor
				Cyclone
			Diffusion
		Automated PM Measurement Methods
			Beta-Rays Attenuation Method
			Microbalance Methods
				Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM)
				Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance (TEOM)
			Continuous Ambient Air Mass Monitor (CAMM)
			Dekati Mass Monitor (DMM)
			Aerosol Particle Mass Analyzer (APM)
			Optical Methods
				Photometers
				Integrating Nephelometer
				Optical Particle Counter (OPC)
			Electrical Mobility Analyzers
				Electrical Aerosol Analyzer (EAA)
				Differential Mobility Analyzer (DMA)
			Aerodynamic Particle Sizer (APS)
			Electrical Low Pressure Impactor (ELPI)
		PM Chemical Composition Measurement Techniques
			Off-Line PM Analysis Techniques
			On-Line PM Analysis Techniques
		References
Part XII: Metrology in Bio-medical Engineering
	70 Precision Measurements in Healthcare Systems and Devices
		Introduction
		Blood Pressure Measurement
		Metrological Aspects of SEMG Signal Acquisition, Processing, and Application Design
		A Survey on Advancement in Measuring Cognition Using EEG and fNIRS
		Use of Metrological Characteristics in Ultrasound Imaging and Artificial Intelligence Techniques for Disease Prediction in Sof...
		Glucose Monitoring Techniques and Their Calibration
		Artificial Intelligence for Iris-Based Diagnosis in Healthcare
		Assessment and Elimination of Surgeon Hand Tremor during Robotic Surgery
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	71 Assessment and Elimination of Surgeon Hand Tremor During Robotic Surgery
		Introduction
		Robotic Surgical Systems
			The Surgical Robot Architectures
			Advantages of Robotic Surgery
			Challenges and Future of Robotic Surgery
			Ethical and Safety Considerations
		Biological Tremor and Its Characteristics
		Techniques for Detection and Measurement of Tremor
		EMG-Based Tremor Sensing and Elimination
			EMG Signal Acquisition
			EMG Signal Processing
			Feature Extraction
				Mean
				Standard Deviation
				Skewness
				Kurtosis
				Zero-Crossing
				Slope-Sign Change
			Principal Component Analysis
			Classification
				K-Nearest Neighbor
				Logistic Regression
				Support Vector Machine
				Random Forest
			Results and Analysis
				Time Domain Analysis
				Frequency Domain Analysis
				Classification
			Conclusion
		References
	72 Metrological Aspects of Blood Pressure Measurement
		Introduction
		NIBP Measuring Techniques
			Auscultatory Technique
			Oscillometric Technique
			Finger Penaz Technique
			Ultrasound Technique
			Tonometry Technique
			Wearable Sensor-Based Cuffless Technique
		Location for BP Measurements
			Arm
			Leg
			Finger
			Wrist
			Ear
		Sources of Errors in the BP Measurements
			Body Position
			Cuff Size
			Effect of Posture
			White Coat Effect
			Error from BP Instruments
		International Standards and Recommendations for BP Devices
			Indian Standards
			World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines
			OIML Recommendations
			Some Other Important Standards
		Calibration of the Oscillometric BP Devices
		Future Directions and Confronts
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	73 Glucose Monitoring Techniques and Their Calibration
		Introduction
		Glucose Measurement Techniques
			Invasive Glucose Measurement Technique
				Basic Principle of Glucose Biosensing
				First Generation of Glucose Biosensors
				Second Generation of Glucose Biosensors
				Third Generation of Glucose Biosensors
			Minimally Invasive Glucose Measurement Devices
				Calibration of CGM Devices
			Metrological Issues Related to SMBG Measurements
				Standards for SMBG Monitoring
			Non-invasive Glucose Sensing
				Raman Spectroscopy
				Near-Infrared and Mid-Infrared Spectroscopy
				Polarimetry
				Fluorescence Spectroscopy
				Bio-Impedance Spectroscopy
				Electromagnetic Monitoring
			Calibration of Non-invasive Measurements
				Leave-One-Out Cross-Validation
		Conclusion
		References
	74 Advancements in Measuring Cognition Using EEG and fNIRS
		Introduction
		Measuring Cognition
		Measuring Cognition Using EEG: How EEG Works
			How EEG Measures Cognition
			How Neurons Communicate
			The Source of EEG
			EEG Analysis
				Event-Related Potentials (ERPs)
				EEG Spectral Bands
				EEG Preprocessing
				Current Challenges in EEG Preprocessing
				EG Feature Extraction
			Application of EEG
				Measuring Cognitive Load Using EEG
				Analyzing Mild Cognitive Impairment Using EEG
		Measuring Cognition Using Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS)
			How fNIRS Measures Cognition
			How fNIRS Works
				Oxyhemoglobin and Deoxyhemoglobin
				fNIRS Measurements
				fNIRS Preprocessing
			fNIRS Analysis
				General Linear Model
			Applications of fNIRS
				Mental Workload
				Epilepsy
				Mild Cognitive Impairment
		Future Work: Measuring Cognition Using Simultaneous EEG and fNIRS
		References
	75 Metrological Aspects of SEMG Signal Acquisition, Processing, and Application Design
		Introduction
		Material and Methods
			Amputation and Prosthesis
			Human Lower Limb Anatomy and Gait Cycle
				Ankle-Foot Anatomy
				Human Knee Anatomy
				Human Gait Cycle
		A General Control Structure for Prosthesis
			Methodology and Experiment Design
			Data Acquisition Protocol
				SENIAM Recommendations
					Inter-Electrode Distance (in Millimeters)
					Skin Preparation
					Examining the Connection
				Noise-Related Issues in SEMG Signal Acquisition
					Noise in the Environment
					Noise Generated by the Device Itself
				Experiment Design
		Signal Processing and Module Design
			Locomotion Identification Module
			Knee Angle Class Estimation
			Continuous Estimation of Ankle Angle Module
				Performance Measures
		Results
			Locomotion Identification Module
			Knee Angle Class Estimation
			Ankle Angle Estimation Module
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	76 Artificial Intelligence for Iris-Based Diagnosis in Healthcare
		Introduction
			Type 1 Diabetes
			Type 2 Diabetes
			Gestational Diabetes
			Prediabetes
			Other Specific Types of Diabetes
		Diagnosis of Diabetes
			Blood Glucose Tests
				Glycated Hemoglobin (A1C) Test
				Random Blood Glucose Test
				Fasting Blood Glucose Test
				Oral Glucose Tolerance Test
		Diabetes and Its Prevalence
			Status of Diabetes in India
			Diabetes and Physiological Parameters
		Complementary and Alternative Diagnosis
			Ayurveda for Diagnoses
			Traditional Chinese Medicine
			Iridology
		Methodology
			Dataset Collection
			Image Pre-processing Techniques
			Feature Extraction and Model Design
			Classification
		Result and Discussion
			Classifier Analysis by FOS Features
			Classifier´s Performance Analysis by GLCM Features
			Classifier´s Performance Analysis by GLRLM Features
			Classifier´s Performance Analysis Using Combined Feature Vector
		Conclusion
		References
	77 Use of Metrological Characteristics in Ultrasound Imaging and Artificial Intelligence Techniques for Disease Prediction in ...
		Introduction
			Kidney Diseases
			Liver Diseases
			Thyroid Diseases
			Breast Diseases
		Need of CAD Systems for Disease Diagnosis Using Ultrasound Images
		CAD System Designs for Disease Prediction Using Ultrasound Images of Soft Tissue Organs
			CAD System Designs for Prediction of Kidney Diseases
			CAD System Designs for Prediction of Liver Diseases
			CAD System Designs for Prediction of Thyroid Diseases
			CAD System Designs for Prediction of Breast Diseases
		Sample Demonstration
		Conclusion and Future Scope
		References
Part XIII: Legal Metrology and Global Trade
	78 Legal Metrology and Global Trade
		Introduction
		Importance of Global Trade
		Evolution of Global Trade and the Importance of Trade Route
		OECD Role in Promoting Global Trade
		Legal Metrology: ``Once Measured, Accepted Everywhere´´
		Evolution of Unitary System of Measurement
		Evolution of Legal Metrology Laws
		Legal Metrology Laws of India, the United States, and the United Kingdom with Reference to the Package Commodity
			The Declaration Is to be Made on the Packages
			Offense and Penalties
		Advantages of Legal Metrology in Trade Practices
		OIML Role in Stimulating the World Trade
		Conclusion
		References
	79 Standardization and Regulatory Ecosystem in India
		Introduction
		Industry Revolution and Trade Dynamics
			Industry Revolution over Time
			Trade Liberalization
			Impact of Globalization
			Globalization and Standardization
		Quality Infrastructure (QI)
			Metrology
			Standardization
				Standard
				Technical Regulation
				Market Surveillance (MS)
				Conformity Assessment
			Accreditation
		WTO and SDOs: The Key Players
			The Role of the WTO
			Trade Dynamics and WTO
			SDOs and Their Role
		Standardization and Regulatory Ecosystem in India
			Acts and Regulations
			Domestic QI and Institutional Mechanism
			Indian Key Players
				Quality Council of India (QCI): For Accreditation
				BIS: For Standardization
				Technical Regulations: Major Key Players Are Ministries/Departments
				Market Surveillance in India
				CSIR-NPL/BARC and DoCA: For Metrology
		Growth Avenues and Challenges for India
			Major Positive Nodes
			Major Challenges
		Conclusion
		References
	80 Sanctity of Calibrations
		Introduction
		Calibration and Its Role in Industry
			Sanctity of Calibration: Case Study Pressure Gauges (PTB 2014)
			Technical Capabilities and Scope of Work of the Metrology Laboratory
			Calibration of Digital/Analog Pressure Gauge/Indicator Reference Standard: DKD-R-6-1, Calibration of Pressure Gauges (ISO 2011)
			Directive Table for Calibration (Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 9)
			Unit Conversion Chart for Pressure
			Checklist for Items Required for Calibration
			Violation of the Sanctity of Calibration and Associated Hazards
			Sanctity of Calibrations (Case Study - Heavy Metal and Toxic Trace Contents in the Consignment of Basmati Rice Exports)
		Conclusion
		References
Part XIV: Radiation Metrology and National Standards
	81 Radiation Dosimetry
		Introduction
		Interaction Coefficients and Related Quantities
			Cross Section
			Linear Attenuation Coefficient
			Mass Attenuation Coefficient
			Mass Energy-Transfer Coefficient
			Mass Energy Absorption Coefficient
			Mass Stopping Power
			Linear Energy Transfer
			Radiation Chemical Yield
			Ionization Yield in a Gas
			Mean Energy Expended in a Gas Per Ion Pair Formed
		Dosimetric Quantities
			Exposure (X)
			Kerma
			Energy Deposit
			Energy Imparted
			Mean Energy Imparted
			Absorbed Dose
		Charged Particle Equilibrium (CPE)
		General Principles of Absorbed Dose Determination
			Cavity Theories
				Bragg Gray Cavity Theory
				Spencer-Attix Cavity Theory
				Re-Examination of Spencer-Attix Cavity Theory
				Burlin Cavity Theory
				Kearsley Cavity Theory
				Haider Cavity Theory
		Detectors Used in Radiation Dosimetry
			Ionization Chambers
			Calorimetry
			Chemical Dosimetry
			Film Dosimetry
				Radiographic Film
				Radiochromic Film
			Solid-Sate Detectors
				Semiconductor Detector
				Scintillation Detectors
				Thermoluminescent Dosimeters
		Properties of Dosimeters
			Accuracy and Precision
			Linearity
			Dose Rate Dependence
			Energy Dependence
				Intrinsic Energy Dependence
				Absorbed Dose Energy Dependence
		References
	82 Equipment for Environmental Radioactivity Measurement: Calibration and Traceability
		Introduction
			Environmental Monitoring of Terrestrial, Aquatic, and Atmospheric Radionuclides
		Equipment for Environmental Monitoring of Radiation and Radionuclides
			Essentials of Calibration and Metrological Traceability
		Radiation Survey Meters for Background Radiation and Contamination Detection
			Calibration of GM Tube-Based Radiation Survey Meters
			Calibration of Advance Radiation Survey Meters
		Gas Flow Beta Counter Having Anti-Coincidence Technique
			Calibration of Gas Flow Beta Counter Having Anti-Coincidence Technique
		Geiger-Mueller Counter
			GM Counter for Measurement of Beta Activity
			Calibration of Geiger Mueller Counter for Beta Activity
		Liquid Scintillation Detector
			Calibration of Liquid Scintillation Counter/Analyzer (LSC/LSA)
		Gamma Spectrometry System
			Prerequisites for Calibration of Gamma Spectrometry Systems
			Energy Resolution of Gamma-Ray Spectrometry Systems
			Efficiency Calibration of Gamma-Ray Spectrometry Systems
			Gamma Spectrometry System with NaI (Tl) Detector
				Energy Calibration of Sodium Iodide Gamma Spectrometry Systems
				Efficiency Calibration of NaI (Tl) Detectors
			High Purity Germanium (HPGe) Gamma Spectrometry Systems
				Energy Calibration of HPGe Type Gamma Spectrometry Systems
				Efficiency Calibration of HPGe Systems
			Calibration of Gamma-ray Spectrometry Systems for Environmental Samples (Geometry)
		Measurement of Alpha-Emitting Radionuclides and Standard Sources for Calibration
			Alpha Scintillation Counting by ZnS (Ag) System
				Calibration of ZnS (Ag) Counting System
			Alpha Spectrometry System
				Energy Calibration of Alpha Spectrometry System
				Resolution of Alpha Spectrometry Systems
				Efficiency Calibration of Alpha Spectrometry Systems
		Traceability of Standard Sources Used in Calibration of Environmental Monitoring Equipment
			Role of International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC)
			Traceability to SI
			Establishing Metrological Traceability
			Certified Reference Materials (CRM)
			IAEA ALMERA Network for Proficiency Tests and Interlaboratory Comparison Exercises
		References
	83 Radiation Metrology and Applications
		Introduction
		Radiation Metrology and Radiotherapy
			Traceability of Dosimeters Used in External Beam Therapy
			Reference Air Kerma Rate Calibration at 192Ir and 60Co Beams (Brachytherapy)
			TLD-Based Quality Audit Program
			Calibration of Diagnostic Radiology Instruments at 20-150-kV X-Ray Diagnostic Beam Qualities
		Radiation Metrology and Nuclear Medicine
			Traceability of Radioactivity Measurements in Nuclear Medicine
			Primary Standards of Radioactivity Measurements in Metrology Lab
			Secondary Standards for Radionuclides
				4π-γ Ion Chamber (4π GIC) for Activity Measurements of Gamma-Emitting Radionuclides
				HPGe Gamma Spectrometer for Activity Measurements of Gamma-Emitting Radionuclides
			Equivalence of Primary Standards with Other International National Metrology Institutes (NMIs)
				International Intercomparison of 59Fe (APMP.RI (II)-K2.Fe-59)
				International Intercomparison of 68Ge (CCRI(II)-k2.Ge-68
		Role of Radiation Metrology in Reactors and Accelerators
			Radiation Instruments Used
				Manganese Sulfate Bath System
				Standard Thermal Assembly in Graphite (STAG)
				Proton Recoil Neutron Telescope
				Precision Long Counter (PLC)
				Portable Transfer Standard
			Role of RSS in Reactor Criticality and Onsite Testing and Calibration of Reactor Instruments in Protection and Regulatory Chan...
				Thermal Neutron Howitzer
				Portable Thermal Neutron Water Jig
		Metrology and Radiation Processing Industries
			Radiation Processing Applications Involving Chemical Dosimetry
				Food Irradiation
				Medical Sterilization
				Sludge Hygienization
				Blood Irradiation
				Material Modifications
			Facilities and Dosimeters for High-Dose Measurement
				Gamma Chambers
				UV-Visible-NIR Spectrophotometer
				Fricke Dosimeter
				FBX Dosimeter
				Alanine ESR Dosimeters
				Glutamine Dosimeter
			Regulatory Role of RSS in Food Irradiation Facilities
		Protection-Level Radiation Instruments for Measurement and Their Traceability
			Standards for Radiation Protection
			Calibration of Radiation Monitoring Instruments (RMIs)
			Establishment of Calibration Laboratories: Role of the BARC
			Traceability to Calibration Laboratories
			Radiological-Type Testing of Radiation Monitors
			IAEA Postal Dose Quality Audit for 137Cs
		Conclusion
		References
	84 Occupational Radiation Monitoring in Indian Nuclear Industry
		Introduction
		Overview of Indian Nuclear Fuel Cycle Activities
		Regulatory Infrastructures for Nuclear Industrial Activities
		Organizational Setup for Occupational Radiation Monitoring
		Design Safety Features for Occupational Exposure Control in Nuclear Facilities
		Metrology in Monitoring for Radiation Protection
		Quantities Used in Occupational Radiation Monitoring
		Common Monitoring Practices for Control of Occupational Exposure
			Workplace Monitoring
				Installed Radiation Monitors
				Measurements Using Portable Instruments
			Individual Monitoring
				Monitoring for External Exposure
				Monitoring for Internal Exposure
		Monitoring Practices Specific to Facilities
			Front End Fuel Cycle Facilities
			Occupational Monitoring in Reactors
			Radiochemical Plants and Plutonium Handling Facilities
		Trends in Occupational Exposure of Workers in Nuclear Industry in the Country
		Conclusions
		References
	85 Relevance of Radiometric Metrology in NORM Industries and Radiological Safety
		Introduction
		Natural Radiation and Radioactivity
			Cosmic Radiation
			Terrestrial Radiation
			Inhalation Exposure due to 222Rn and 220Rn
			Internal Exposure due to Ingestion
			Natural Radioactivity in the Body
			Relative Exposure in Natural Radiation Environment
		NORM Industries
			Copper Mining
			Phosphate Production
			Coal Combustion
			Heavy Mineral Sand
			Current Regulatory Practices
		Radiological Parameters and Concerns
			Measurement Techniques
				Gamma Spectrometry
				Alpha Spectrometry
				Liquid Scintillation Analyzer
				Radon, Thoron, and Their Progeny Monitoring Methods
					Scintillation Cell Technique
					Two Filter Method
				Thoron and Its Progeny Monitoring Method
		International Approach for Quality of Radioanalytical Laboratories
			Quality Assurance
			Quality Control
		National Perspective and Policy
		Conclusion
		References
	86 Metrological Concepts for Ionizing Radiation in Medical Applications
		Introduction
		Diagnostic Radiology
		Radiotherapy
			Treatment Machines for External Beam Radiotherapy
			Calibration of Radiotherapy Sources and Machines
			Quality Assurance in External Radiotherapy
			Uncertainties, Tolerances, and Action Levels
		Metrological Traceability
		Radiation Protection
			Principles of Radiation Protection
			Radiation Protection Fundamentals in the Medical Field
			Application of Principles of Radiation Protection in Medical Fields
				Justification
				Optimization
			Models of Risk Assessment
			Radiation Protection Quantities
				Equivalent Dose HT
				Effective Dose E
				Collective Dose
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	87 Nuclear Forensics: Role of Radiation Metrology
		Introduction
		Guidelines and Methodology for Nuclear Forensic Analysis
			Nuclear Forensic Model Action Plan
			On-Scene Assessment and Categorization of Materials
			Nuclear Forensic Sample Type, Collection, Storage, and Transport
			Laboratory and Analyses Requirement
		Analysis of Nuclear Forensic Signatures
			Physical and Microstructural Analysis
			Chemical Analysis
				Concentration and Isotopic Ratio Analysis of Radionuclides
					Radiometric Techniques in Bulk Matrices
					Mass Spectrometry in Traces
				Analysis of Minor Constituents in Bulk Radioactive Materials
					Activation Analysis
					Analysis Using X-Ray-Based Techniques
		Nuclear Forensic Interpretation
			Comparative Signatures
			Predictive Signatures
		QA/QC in Nuclear Forensic Data and Interpretation Methodology
			Challenges in the Quality Assurance of Nuclear Analytical Measurements in the Nuclear Field
			Challenges and Requirements in Nuclear Forensics
		Cross-References
		Annexure A
		References
Part XV: Advanced Techniques in Evaluation of Measurement Uncertainty
	88 Advanced Techniques in Evaluation of Measurement Uncertainty
		Introduction and Historical Perspectives
		Contemporary Perspectives and Current Limitations with the GUM
		Future Outlook and Anticipated Developments with the GUM
		Summary of the Section
		References
	89 Monte Carlo Simulations in Uncertainty Evaluation for Partial Differential Equations
		Introduction
		Spectral-Based Uncertainty Quantification
		Review of the Monte Carlo Method for Uncertainties
		Poisson Partial Differential Equation
		Numerical Results
		Discussion and Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	90 Modern Approaches to Statistical Estimation of Measurements in the Location Model and Regression
		Introduction
		History of Statistical Methods for Analyzing Measurements
		The Location Model
		Linear Regression
			Weighted Least Squares
			Errros-in-Variables Model
			Consistent Modification of Least Squares in the EIV Model
			General Discussion of Estimators in the EIV Model
			Total Least Squares and Extensions
		Robust Regression Estimators
			Robust Estimation in the Location Model
			Robust Regression: A Real Data Example
			Robust Regression: Simulation
		Bayesian Estimation in the Location Model
			Bayesian Estimation: Mean of One-Dimensional Gaussian Distribution
			Bayesian Estimation: Mean of Multivariate Gaussian Distribution
			Bayesian Estimation: Covariance Matrix of Multivariate Gaussian Distribution
		Conclusion
		References
	91 The Quantifying of Uncertainty in Measurement
		Introduction
		The General Idea of Quantifying Uncertainty
		Considering Uncertainty in Determining Conformance to Specifications
		Type A Evaluation Method
		Type B Evaluation Method
			The Uniform Distribution (Best Fit with Level 1)
			The Isosceles Triangular Distribution (Best Fit with Level 2)
			The Normal Distribution (Best Fit with Level 3)
		The Measurement Model
		The GUM Uncertainty Framework
		The Monte Carlo Simulation at a Glance
		Using Monte Carlo in Evaluating Metrological Uncertainty
		Programming MCS for Uncertainty Evaluation
		Coverage Interval for MCS Output Distribution
		Number of Monte Carlo Trials, M
		Adaptive Monte Carlo Procedure
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	92 Measurement Uncertainty
		Introduction
		Main Text
			Mathematical Notations and Symbols
			Measurement Errors and Models
			Defining the Concepts of Unpredictability and Probability
				Gaussian Distribution
				Uniform Distribution
				Triangular Distribution
			Error Versus Uncertainty
				Identifying Influence Quantities in Measuring Simple Length by Using a Calibrated Steel Ruler
			Calibrating a Thermometer
				Control of Influencing Factors
				Relation Between the Width and Standard Deviation
			Observations of Variability
				Samples and Estimates
				A Single Observation and the Sample Standard Deviation
				Sample Mean and the Standard Deviation of the Mean
				Variability and Offset
				Sampling Theory
			The Theory of Uncertainty
			Fuzzy Variables and Measurement Uncertainty
				Definition of Fuzzy Variables
		Conclusion
		References
	93 Evaluation and Analysis of Measurement Uncertainty
		Introduction
		Uncertainty of Measurement
		GUM Method Based on LPU Approach
			Integration Method for the Evaluation of Type B Measurement Uncertainty
				Uniform Distribution
				Triangular Distribution
				The U-Shaped Distribution
			Numerical Statistical Data Analysis for the Evaluation of Type B Measurement Uncertainty
		Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) Approach
		Bayesian Approach
		Innovations and Other Futuristic Scenario
		Concluding Remarks
		Notations
		References
	94 Application of Contemporary Techniques of Evaluation of Measurement Uncertainty in Pressure Transducer
		Introduction
		Experimental Setup
		Mathematical Modeling
			Mathematical Model of LSF
				Zero Setting (uzero) Contribution
				Resolution (ures) Contribution
				Hysteresis (uhys) Contribution
				Uncertainty Contribution of Reference Standard (uB4)
				Combined and Expanded Uncertainty
			Mathematical Model of Monte Carlo Method
			Mathematical Model of EURAMET Method
		Results and Discussion
		Conclusions
		References
Index