Fundamentals of thermodynamics

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page......Page 3
Copyright Page......Page 4
Contents\n......Page 11
1.1 The Simple Steam Power Plant......Page 23
1.2 Fuel Cells......Page 24
1.3 The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle......Page 27
1.4 The Thermoelectric Refrigerator......Page 29
1.5 The Air Separation Plant......Page 30
1.6 The Gas Turbine......Page 31
1.7 The Chemical Rocket Engine......Page 33
1.8 Other Applications and Environmental Issues......Page 34
2.1 A Thermodynamic System and the Control Volume......Page 35
2.2 Macroscopic Versus Microscopic Point of View......Page 36
2.3 Properties and State of a Substance......Page 37
2.4 Processes and Cycles......Page 38
2.5 Units for Mass, Length, Time, and Force......Page 39
2.6 Energy......Page 42
2.7 Specific Volume and Density......Page 44
2.8 Pressure......Page 47
2.9 Equality of Temperature......Page 52
2.11 Temperature Scales......Page 53
2.12 Engineering Appilication......Page 55
Summary......Page 59
Problems......Page 60
3 PROPERTIES OF A PURE SUBSTANCE......Page 69
3.2 Vapor-Liquid-Solid-Phase Equilibrium in a Pure Substance......Page 70
3.4 Tables of Thermodynamic Properties......Page 77
3.5 Thermodynamic Surfaces......Page 85
3.6 The P–V–T Behavior of Low- and Moderate-Density Gases......Page 87
3.7 The Compressibility Factor......Page 91
3.8 Equations of State......Page 94
3.9 Computerized Tables......Page 95
3.10 Engineering Applications......Page 97
Summary......Page 99
Problems......Page 100
4.1 Definition of Work......Page 112
4.2 Units for Work......Page 114
4.3 Work Done at the Moving Boundary of a Simple Compressible System......Page 115
4.4 Other Systems that Involve Work......Page 124
4.5 Concluding Remarks Regarding Work......Page 126
4.6 Definition of Heat......Page 128
4.7 Heat Transfer Modes......Page 129
4.8 Comparison of Heat and Work......Page 131
4.9 Engineering Applications......Page 132
Summary......Page 135
Problems......Page 136
5.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Mass Undergoing a Cycle......Page 149
5.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Change in State of a Control Mass......Page 150
5.3 Internal Energy—A Thermodynamic Property......Page 157
5.4 Problem Analysis and Solution Technique......Page 159
5.5 The Thermodynamic Property Enthalpy......Page 163
5.6 The Constant-Volume and Constant-Pressure Specific Heats......Page 168
5.7 The Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heat of Ideal Gases......Page 169
5.8 The First Law as a Rate Equation......Page 176
5.9 Conservation of Mass......Page 178
5.10 Engineering Applications......Page 179
Summary......Page 182
Problems......Page 184
6.1 Conservation of Mass and the Control Volume......Page 202
6.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Volume......Page 205
6.3 The Steady-State Process......Page 207
6.4 Examples of Steady-State Processes......Page 209
6.5 The Transient Process......Page 224
6.6 Engineering Applications......Page 233
Summary......Page 237
Problems......Page 240
7.1 Heat Engines and Refrigerators......Page 260
7.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 266
7.3 The Reversible Process......Page 269
7.4 Factors that Render Processes Irreversible......Page 270
7.5 The Carnot Cycle......Page 273
7.6 Two Propositions Regarding the Efficiency of a Carnot Cycle......Page 275
7.7 The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale......Page 276
7.8 The Ideal-Gas Temperature Scale......Page 277
7.9 Ideal versus Real Machines......Page 281
7.10 Engineering Applications......Page 284
Summary......Page 287
Problems......Page 289
8.1 The Inequality of Clausius......Page 301
8.2 Entropy—A Property of a System......Page 305
8.3 The Entropy of a Pure Substance......Page 307
8.4 Entropy Change in Reversible Processes......Page 309
8.5 The Thermodynamic Property Relation......Page 313
8.6 Entropy Change of a Solid or Liquid......Page 315
8.7 Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas......Page 316
8.8 The Reversible Polytropic Process for an Ideal Gas......Page 320
8.9 Entropy Change of a Control Mass During an Irreversible Process......Page 324
8.10 Entropy Generation......Page 325
8.11 Principle of the Increase of Entropy......Page 327
8.12 Entropy as a Rate Equation......Page 331
8.13 Some General Comments about Entropy and Chaos......Page 333
Summary......Page 335
Problems......Page 337
9.1 The Second Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Volume......Page 356
9.2 The Steady-State Process and the Transient Process......Page 358
9.3 The Steady-State Single-Flow Process......Page 367
9.4 Principle of the Increase of Entropy......Page 371
9.5 Engineering Applications; Efficiency......Page 374
9.6 Summary of General Control Volume Analysis......Page 380
Summary......Page 381
Problems......Page 383
10.1 Available Energy, Reversible Work, and Irreversibility......Page 403
10.2 Availability and Second-Law Efficiency......Page 415
10.3 Exergy Balance Equation......Page 423
10.4 Engineering Applications......Page 428
Summary......Page 429
Problems......Page 430
11 POWER AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS—WITH PHASE CHANGE......Page 443
11.1 Introduction to Power Systems......Page 444
11.2 The Rankine Cycle......Page 446
11.3 Effect of Pressure and Temperature on the Rankine Cycle......Page 449
11.4 The Reheat Cycle......Page 454
11.5 The Regenerative Cycle......Page 457
11.6 Deviation of Actual Cycles from Ideal Cycles......Page 464
11.7 Cogeneration......Page 469
11.8 Introduction to Refrigeration Systems......Page 470
11.9 The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle......Page 471
11.10 Working Fluids for Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems......Page 474
11.11 Deviation of the Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle from the Ideal Cycle......Page 475
11.12 Refrigeration Cycle Configurations......Page 477
11.13 The Ammonia Absorption Refrigeration Cycle......Page 479
Summary......Page 481
Problems......Page 482
12.1 Air-Standard Power Cycles......Page 498
12.2 The Brayton Cycle......Page 499
12.3 The Simple Gas-Turbine Cycle with a Regenerator......Page 506
12.4 Gas-Turbine Power Cycle Configurations......Page 508
12.5 The Air-Standard Cycle for Jet Propulsion......Page 511
12.6 The Air-Standard Refrigeration Cycle......Page 514
12.7 Reciprocating Engine Power Cycles......Page 516
12.8 The Otto Cycle......Page 518
12.9 The Diesel Cycle......Page 522
12.11 The Atkinson and Miller Cycles......Page 525
12.12 Combined-Cycle Power and Refrigeration Systems......Page 527
Summary......Page 529
Problems......Page 531
13.1 General Considerations and Mixtures of Ideal Gases......Page 545
13.2 A Simplified Model of a Mixture Involving Gases and a Vapor......Page 552
13.3 The First Law Applied to Gas-Vapor Mixtures......Page 558
13.4 The Adiabatic Saturation Process......Page 560
13.5 Engineering Applications—Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures and the Psychrometric Chart......Page 563
Summary......Page 569
Problems......Page 570
14.1 The Clapeyron Equation......Page 586
14.2 Mathematical Relations for a Homogeneous Phase......Page 590
14.3 The Maxwell Relations......Page 592
14.4 Thermodynamic Relations Involving Enthalpy, Internal Energy, and Entropy......Page 594
14.5 Volume Expansivity and Isothermal and Adiabatic Compressibility......Page 600
14.6 Real-Gas Behavior and Equations of State......Page 602
14.7 The Generalized Chart for Changes of Enthalpy at Constant Temperature......Page 607
14.8 The Generalized Chart for Changes of Entropy at Constant Temperature......Page 610
14.9 The Property Relation for Mixtures......Page 613
14.10 Pseudopure Substance Models for Real-Gas Mixtures......Page 616
14.11 Engineering Applications—Thermodynamic Tables......Page 621
Summary......Page 624
Problems......Page 626
15.1 Fuels......Page 637
15.2 The Combustion Process......Page 641
15.3 Enthalpy of Formation......Page 648
15.4 First-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems......Page 651
15.5 Enthalpy and Internal Energy of Combustion; Heat of Reaction......Page 657
15.6 Adiabatic Flame Temperature......Page 662
15.7 The Third Law of Thermodynamics and Absolute Entropy......Page 664
15.8 Second-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems......Page 665
15.9 Fuel Cells......Page 670
15.10 Engineering Applications......Page 673
Summary......Page 678
Problems......Page 680
16.1 Requirements for Equilibrium......Page 694
16.2 Equilibrium Between Two Phases of a Pure Substance......Page 696
16.3 Metastable Equilibrium......Page 700
16.4 Chemical Equilibrium......Page 701
16.5 Simultaneous Reactions......Page 711
16.6 Coal Gasification......Page 715
16.7 Ionization......Page 716
16.8 Applications......Page 718
Summary......Page 720
Problems......Page 722
17.1 Stagnation Properties......Page 731
17.2 The Momentum Equation for a Control Volume......Page 733
17.3 Forces Acting on a Control Surface......Page 736
17.4 Adiabatic, One-Dimensional, Steady-State Flow of an Incompressible Fluid through a Nozzle......Page 738
17.5 Velocity of Sound in an Ideal Gas......Page 740
17.6 Reversible, Adiabatic, One-Dimensional Flow of an Ideal Gas through a Nozzle......Page 743
17.7 Mass Rate of Flow of an Ideal Gas through an Isentropic Nozzle......Page 746
17.8 Normal Shock in an Ideal Gas Flowing through a Nozzle......Page 751
17.9 Nozzle and Diffuser Coefficients......Page 756
17.10 Nozzle and Orifices as Flow-Measuring Devices......Page 759
Summary......Page 763
Problems......Page 768
APPENDIX A SI UNITS: SINGLE-STATE PROPERTIES......Page 775
APPENDIX B SI UNITS: THERMODYNAMIC TABLES......Page 795
APPENDIX C IDEAL-GAS SPECIFIC HEAT......Page 845
APPENDIX D EQUATIONS OF STATE......Page 847
APPENDIX E FIGURES......Page 852
APPENDIX F ENGLISH UNIT TABLES......Page 857
ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS......Page 898
INDEX......Page 909