Free Radical Biology and Environmental Toxicity

Foreword
Preface and Acknowledgements
Contents
Environment Persistent Free Radicals: Long-Lived Particles
	1 Introduction
	2 Occurrence of EPFRs
	3 Sources of EPFRs
		3.1 Pyrolysis of Biochar and Biodiesel
		3.2 Transition Metals–Mediated Generation of EPFRs
		3.3 Other Sources of EPFRs
	4 Mechanism of EPFR Formation
	5 Factors Affecting EPFRs’ Formation
	6 Lifetime and Persistence of EPFRs
	7 Potential Risks of EPFRs
	8 Role of EPFRs for Remediation of Organic Contaminants
	9 Conclusions
	References
Reactive Oxygen Species Producing Photoactivatable Molecules and Their Biological Applications
	1 Introduction
	2 Mechanism of ROS Production by Photoactivator Molecules or Photosensitizers
		2.1 Application of Photosensitizers in Cancer Treatment
	3 Application of Photosensitizers as Immunomodulatory agent
	4 Miscellaneous Application of Photosensitizers
	5 Conclusion and Future Prospect
	References
Effects of the Transformation of Metallic Nanoparticles in the Environment and Its Toxicity on Aquatic and Terrestrial Life Forms
	1 Introduction
	2 Sources of Nanoparticle in the Environment
		2.1 Natural and Anthropogenic Sources
			2.1.1 Wastewater
			2.1.2 Personal Care Products
			2.1.3 Anti-fouling Applications
	3 Physicochemical Properties of Nanoparticles
		3.1 Particle Size
		3.2 Surface Area
		3.3 Surface Charge and Agglomeration
		3.4 Particle Morphology
		3.5 Surface Coating
		3.6 Composition of the Particle
	4 Transformation of Nanoparticles in Various Environment
		4.1 Physical Transformation
			4.1.1 Aggregation/Agglomeration
			4.1.2 Deposition
		4.2 Chemical Transformation
			4.2.1 Dissolution and Release of Toxic Ions
			4.2.2 Redox Reactions
		4.3 Biological Transformation
			4.3.1 Formation of Nanoparticles Facilitated by Macromolecules
			4.3.2 Biodegradation Process of Nanoparticles
			4.3.3 Eco/-Corona and Nano-Bio Interaction
	5 Toxic Effects of Nanomaterials on Aquatic and Terrestrial Life Forms
		5.1 Mechanism of Toxicity
		5.2 Nanomaterials in Plants
		5.3 Nanomaterials in Aquatic Environment
		5.4 Nanomaterials in Terrestrial Animals and Human Beings
		5.5 Nanomaterials in Microbial Community
	6 Conclusion and Future Prospects
	References
Drug-Induced Oxidative Stress and Cellular Toxicity
	1 Introduction
	2 Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and Reactive Nitrogen Species (RNS): Double-Edged Sword
		2.1 Production of ROS
			2.1.1 ROS Generation in Mitochondria
			2.1.2 ROS Production by Cytosol
			2.1.3 ROS Production in ER
			2.1.4 ROS Generation by Plasma Membrane
			2.1.5 ROS Generation by Lysosomes
		2.2 Effect of ROS on the Dysfunction of the Cellular System
			2.2.1 Lipid Damage
			2.2.2 Protein Damage
			2.2.3 Nucleic Acids Damage
		2.3 Generation of RNS and Its Damaging Effect on the Cellular System
	3 Drugs-Induced OS and Associated Cytotoxicity
		3.1 Antipsychotic Drugs
			3.1.1 Clozapine
			3.1.2 Chlorpromazine
			3.1.3 Olanzapine (OLZ)
			3.1.4 Haloperidol (HP)
			3.1.5 L-Dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA)
		3.2 Antineoplastic Drugs
			3.2.1 Doxorubicin (DOX)
			3.2.2 Bleomycin (BLM)
			3.2.3 Cisplatin
			3.2.4 Methotrexate (MTX)
			3.2.5 Paclitaxel
		3.3 Antimalarial Drugs
			3.3.1 Chloroquine (CQ)
			3.3.2 Primaquine (PQ)
		3.4 Antiretroviral Drugs
			3.4.1 Azidothymidine (AZT)
			3.4.2 Didanosine
		3.5 Analgesic and Antipyretic Drugs
			3.5.1 Acetaminophen (Tylenol)
			3.5.2 Aspirin
		3.6 Drugs of Abuse
			3.6.1 Cocaine
			3.6.2 Amphetamine
		3.7 Antibiotics
			3.7.1 Levofloxacin
			3.7.2 Ciprofloxacin
		3.8 Antituberculosis Drugs
			3.8.1 Isoniazid (INH)
			3.8.2 Rifampin
	4 Potential of Antioxidant Therapy for OS Generating Drugs
	5 Conclusion
	References
Adversities of Nanoparticles in Elderly Populations
	1 Introduction
	2 Mechanism of Nanoparticle Toxicity
	3 Nanoparticle Toxicity in Susceptible People
	4 Nanoparticle Toxicity in the Elderly Population
	5 Nanoparticle Toxicity in Cardiovascular Diseases
	6 Nanoparticle Toxicity in Chronic Respiratory Disease
	7 Nanoparticle Toxicity in Liver Diseases
	8 Nanoparticle Toxicity in Infectious Diseases
	9 Effect of Nanoparticles on Some Other Diseases
	10 Conclusions
	References
Toxicity of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles and Oxidative Stress
	1 Introduction
	2 Types and Applications of Nanoparticles
	3 Nanoparticle Characterization
	4 Factors Affecting NP Toxicity Potential
		4.1 Particle Size
		4.2 Shape and Morphology
		4.3 Aggregation and Dissolution
		4.4 Surface Charge
	5 Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs)
		5.1 Occurrence
		5.2 Applications/Uses
		5.3 Toxicity of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles
		5.4 Genotoxicity of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles
			5.4.1 The Comet Assay
			5.4.2 The Micronucleus Assay (MN Assay)
			5.4.3 In Vivo Studies on TiO2 NP Genotoxicity
			5.4.4 In Vitro Studies on TiO2 NP Genotoxicity
			5.4.5 Mechanisms of TiO2 Nanoparticle-Induced Toxicity: Generation of Oxidative Stress
			5.4.6 Antioxidant Enzymes
			5.4.7 Measurement of NP-Induced ROS and Oxidative Stress
		5.5 Nanoparticle-Induced Inflammation
		5.6 Systemic Toxicity
	6 Conclusions
	References
Role of Arsenic in Carcinogenesis
	1 Introduction
	2 Arsenic and Skin Cancer
	3 Arsenic and Lung Cancer
	4 Arsenic and Kidney Cancer
	5 Arsenic and Bladder Cancer
	6 Arsenic and Prostate Cancer
	7 Liver and Arsenic Cancer
	8 Role of Arsenic in Oxidative Stress
	9 Arsenic-Induced ROS and Apoptosis
	10 Arsenic-Induced ROS and DNA Damage
	11 Arsenic-Induced ROS and Signal Transduction Pathways
	12 Arsenic-Induced Genotoxicity
	13 Arsenic-Induced Carcinogenesis: Role of miRNA
		13.1 Micro RNA: miRNA
		13.2 Role of Arsenic in miRNA Lead Carcinogenesis
	14 Conclusion
	References
Role of Mitochondrial Oxidative Stress in Pathophysiology of Lung Cancer
	1 Introduction
	2 Reactive Oxygen Species
	3 Mitochondria as Source of Reactive Oxygen Species in Lung Cancer
		3.1 Mitochondrial Metabolic Cycles as Source of ROS
		3.2 Hypoxia and ROS in Cancer
		3.3 Oncogenes as Source of ROS
	4 ROS-Induced Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Mutations in Cancer
	5 Molecular Signaling Regulated by ROS and Affected Pathways in Lung Cancer Cells
	6 ROS and Apoptosis in Lung Cancer
	7 ROS and Mitochondrial Dynamics in Lung Cancer
	8 ROS in Treatment of Lung Cancer
	9 Role of MicroRNA in Mitochondrial ROS-Mediated Lung Cancer Pathophysiology
	10 Conclusion
	References
Regulation of Glucose Transporters in Cancer Progression
	1 Introduction
	2 Glucose Transporters
	3 Role for GLUTs in Cellular Level
	4 Mechanisms of GLUT1 and GLUT3 Regulation
	5 GLUT3 Regulation
	6 Glucose Transporters in Cancer Therapies
	7 Glut Gene Targeting to Interrogate Their Function in Tumors
	8 Conclusions
	References
Oxidative Stress: A Potential Link Between Pesticide Exposure and Early-Life Neurological Disorders
	1 Introduction
	2 Major Pesticides and Their Effect on Brain During Early Life
		2.1 Organophosphates
		2.2 Organochlorines
		2.3 Pyrethroid
		2.4 Carbamates
		2.5 Neonicotinoids
		2.6 Bipyridyl
		2.7 Chlorophenoxy
		2.8 Phosphonate (Glyphosate)
	3 Pesticide and Oxidative Stress
		3.1 Mitochondria and ATP Generation
		3.2 ROS Production and Its Significance
		3.3 Neutralization of ROS
		3.4 Cellular Damage Due to ROS Accumulation
	4 Oxidative Stress: Connection Between Pesticide Exposure Early Life Brain Disorders
		4.1 Organophosphates (OPs) and Oxidative Stress
		4.2 Organochlorines (OCs) and Oxidative Stress
		4.3 Pyrethroid and Oxidative Stress
		4.4 Carbamates and Oxidative Stress
		4.5 Neonicotinoids and Oxidative Stress
		4.6 Bipyridyl and Oxidative Stress
		4.7 Chlorophenoxy and Oxidative Stress
		4.8 Phosphonate and Oxidative Stress
	5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
Sleep Disturbance–Induced Free Radical Formation in the Gut May Be Blocked by Melatonin
	1 Introduction
	2 Sleep Physiology and Wake Cycle
	3 What Is Sleep Deprivation?
	4 Sleep Deprivation and Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species
		4.1 Reactive Oxygen Species
	5 Disturbance of the Gut Microbiota Can Affect Sleep
	6 Therapeutics to Reduce Reactive Oxygen Species Levels
		6.1 Melatonin
		6.2 Natural Products Such as Antioxidants
	7 Conclusion
	References
Initiation of Neurodegenerative Disorders (NDDs) Through Metal Toxicity Generated Oxidative Stress
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Metal Toxicity Generates Oxidative Stress
		1.2 Sources Responsible for Metal Toxicity in Human Brain
	2 Effects of Toxicity Generated by ROS/RNS
		2.1 Alzheimer’s Disease
		2.2 Parkinson’s Disease
		2.3 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
	3 Exposure, Uptake, and Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals in Human System
	4 Cellular and Molecular Mechanism of Metal Accumulation in Brain
	5 Inhibition in Neural Pathways and Signal Transmission
	6 Antidotal Strategies
	7 Conclusion
	References
Reactive Oxygen Species and Oxidative Stress on the Formation of Diabetic Ulcer
	1 Introduction
	2 Diabetes and Diabetic Ulcers
		2.1 Hyperglycemia and Pressure Ulcer
	3 Roles of Hyperglycemia, Advanced Glycated End Products (AGE), Oxidative Stress, and ROS in the Formation of Ulcer
		3.1 Oxidative Stress
		3.2 Mitochondrial ROS Production
		3.3 AGE Product Formation
		3.4 Activation of PKC Pathway
		3.5 Delayed Wound Healing
	4 Conclusion and Future Perspective
	References
Chronic Oxidative Stress Leads to Genomic Instability in the Pathogenesis of Fanconi Anemia
	1 Introduction
	2 Role of Mitochondria in the Regulation of Oxidative Stress
	3 Mitochondrial Imperfections in FA Cells and the Role of Cross-Linking Agents
	4 FANCGR22P Cells are Sensitive to Oxidative Stress But Resistant to ICL Agents
	5 Correlation Between Mitochondrial Instability and Genomic Instability
	6 Antioxidants Will Regulate the ROS Production by the Mitochondria
	7 Antioxidants and Their Effect on Mitochondrial Parameters in FA Cells
	8 Mitochondrial Membrane Depolarization
	9 Mitochondria and FA Pathology
	10 Unique Mitochondrial Localization Signal of Human FANCG
	11 FANCD2 Mislocalization to Mitochondria
	12 Mitochondrial Instability Causes Defective FANCJ
	References
Toxicity with Waste-Generated Ionizing Radiations: Blunders Behind the Scenes
	1 Introduction
	2 Ionizing Radiation
		2.1 Sources of Ionizing Radiation
		2.2 Radiation in Environment
		2.3 Sources of Contamination
	3 Radiation Contamination Hazards
		3.1 Low-Level Contamination
		3.2 High-Level Contamination
	4 Ionization of Biological Material
	5 Radiation-Induced Free Radicals Formation in Biological System
	6 Biological Effects of Radiation
		6.1 Effect of Radiation on Proteins
		6.2 Effects of Radiation on Membrane Lipids
		6.3 Effect of Radiation on Genetic Material
		6.4 External Irradiation
		6.5 Internal Irradiation
	7 Social and Psychological Effects
	8 Radiation Safety
		8.1 Radiation Safety Principles
		8.2 Dosimetry
		8.3 Bioassay
		8.4 Protective Clothing
		8.5 Environmental Monitoring
	9 Lessons from Radiation-Tolerant Life-Forms: Biotechnology Would Help at Mitigating and Managing Radiation Damage-Led Detriments?
	10 Bioremediation of Radionuclides
	11 Conclusive Comments
	References
The Antioxidant Arsenal Against COVID-19
	1 Introduction
	2 Coronavirus Outbreaks: Mild to Severe Health Detriments and Death Tolls
	3 The Vaccine Candidates and Their Issues
	4 Oxidative Stress and Its Relevance in CoV Immune-Pathology: Deep Insights
	5 Do Antioxidants Hold Implications as Anti-virals Against COVID-19?
	6 Promising Antioxidants as Putative Anti-CoVs
		6.1 Melatonin
		6.2 Vitamin D
		6.3 Vitamin C
		6.4 Resveratrol
		6.5 Curcumin
		6.6 Ergothioneine
		6.7 Pentoxifylline
	7 Conclusions
	References
Synergistic Effects of Heavy Water in Health Prospects
	1 Introduction
	2 Attributes of Heavy Water Making It an Ideal Candidate for Studying Biological System
	3 Chemistry of Deuteration Reactions
	4 Deuteration Used by Pharmaceuticals
	5 A Few Reported Case Studies of Heavy Water in Animal and Plant Biotechnology
	6 Reported Biotechnological Applications of Deuterium (Fig. 2)
	7 Discussion
	8 Challenges and Opportunities
	References
Index