Food Science: An Ecological Approach

Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface
About the Editor
Contributors and Reviewers
Section I Food Science Background: Food Systems in Relation to Climate Change, Research, Sensory Evaluation, and the Chemical Composition of Food
	Chapter 1 Food Science in an Era of Environmental Concern Irana Hawkins, PhD, MPH, RD
		Historical, Cultural, and Ecological Significance of Food Production and Consumption
			How the Natural Environment Relates to Food Science
				Special Topic 1.1 Food Insecurity in the United States
			The Current Need for an Ecological Approach
				Special Topic 1.2 Genetically Modified Organisms and Food
		Planetary Health
			Special Topic 1.3 USDA’s Biobased Product Label
			Planetary Boundaries
			Biodiversity Loss
		Effects of Climate Change
			Special Topic 1.4 The Effects of Climate Change on the Earth’s Food Supply
			Mitigating Climate Change
			Effects of Diet on Climate Change
			Effects of Food Waste on Climate Change
		Resource Utilization
			Water Conservation and Drought
			Opposing Impacts of Two Plant Foods: Palm Oil Versus Lentils
			Agrichemicals
			Case in Point: Conventional or Organic Bananas?
			Plastic Debris
		Nutrition Transitions
			Effects of Globalization
			Antibiotic Resistance
			National Food Trends
				Special Topic 1.5 Sustainably Feeding the World
			The Burden of Diet-Related Chronic Diseases
		Concern for the Natural Environment Among Health Professionals
		Putting Theory into Practice
			Working to Change the Global Food Supply Chain
			Minimizing Food-Serving Container Waste
			Creating a Green Kitchen
				Special Topic 1.6 Mariana Cobos, Organic Banana Farmer
			Closing the Loop
	Chapter 2 How Food Science Is Guided by Research Carol E. O’Neil, PhD, MPH, RDN; Theresa A. Nicklas, DrPH; Sari Edelstein, PhD, RDN
		Food Science and Research
		How to Interpret Research: An Evidence-Based Approach
			Navigating the Peer-Reviewed Literature
		Qualitative Studies
			Nutrition Screening
			Nutrition Assessment
			Surveillance
			Ensuring Accuracy
			Government Monitoring Programs
		Epidemiologic Studies
			The Bogalusa Heart Study
			The Framingham Heart Study
			Data Quality
		Clinical Trials
			Metabolic Diet Studies
			Animal Studies
		Using Nutrition Research to Inform Policy and Improve Public Health
			Healthy People 2020
			Nutrient Requirements
			The Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion
			Dietary Guidelines for Americans
			Food Group Plans
			Healthy Eating Index
			The Food Label
				Special Topic 2.1 Major Food Policy Timeline of the Food and Drug Administration
				Special Topic 2.2 The Food Safety Modernization Act
			Bringing Nutrition Recommendations to the Public
	Chapter 3 Food Evaluation Sung Eun Choi, PhD, RDN
		Food Evaluation
		Sensory Evaluation
			The Human Senses
				Special Topic 3.1 Molecular Gastronomy
				Special Topic 3.2 Nutrigenomics
			Variables Controlled During Sensory Evaluation
			Scaling
			Types of Sensory Tests
		Objective Evaluation
			Physical Tests
			Chemical Tests
	Chapter 4 Food Composition Hillary Markey, RDN
		Food Composition
			Special Topic 4.1 Phytonutrients and Functional Foods
			Special Topic 4.2 Update on Government Regulation of Nutrient Health Claims
		Water
			Physical and Chemical Properties of Water
			Functions of Water in Foods
			pH
		Carbohydrates
			Food Sources of Carbohydrates
			Monosaccharides
				Special Topic 4.3 Glycemic Index of Food
			Disaccharides
			Oligosaccharides
			Polysaccharides
			Starch
			Factors Affecting Pastes and Gels
			Undigestible Starches
			Dietary Fiber
			Summary of Roles of Carbohydrates in Food Processing
		Lipids
			Food Sources of Lipids
			Lipid Chemistry
			Phospholipids
			Sterols
		Proteins
			Protein Organization
			Dietary Sources of Proteins
			Functional Properties of Proteins
			Proteins as Enzymes
			Nonenzymatic Browning
		Vitamins and Minerals
			Vitamins
			Minerals
Section II Food Safety, Categorized Food and Beverage Groupings, Vegetarianism, Food Preservation, and Packaging
	Chapter 5 Food Safety Rebecca Kahn, MA, RDN
		Introduction
		Food Safety Defined
		Protecting the Food Supply
			Federal Agencies
			State and Local Collaboration
		Food Safety Laws
			Federal Meat Inspection Act of 1906
			Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938
			Food Additives Amendment, 1958
			Color Additives Amendment, 1960
			Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990
			Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994
			Food Quality Protection Act of 1996
			Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002
			Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act, 2004
			Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008
			Food Safety Modernization Act of 2011
			Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points
			Good Manufacturing Practices
		Hazards to Food Safety
			Biologic Hazards
			Bacteria
				Special Topic 5.1 Swine Flu: H1N1 Virus
				Special Topic 5.2 Avian Influenza: H5N1 Virus
			Viruses
			Parasites
			Prions
				Special Topic 5.3 Animal Prion Diseases
				Special Topic 5.4 Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
			Chemical Hazards
			Physical Hazards
		Food Safety in the 21st Century
			Safety of Bioengineered Foods
			Agroterrorism and Bioterrorism
		Food as a Target
			Physical Consequences
			Psychological Consequences
			Economic Consequences
			Political Consequences
		Public Health Preparedness for Food Biosecurity
			Potential Agents
			Foods at Risk
		Food Biosecurity Triad: Food Systems Security, Public Health Vanguard, and Consumer Engagement
			Food System Security
			Public Health Vanguard
			Consumer Engagement
		From Awareness to Security
	Chapter 6 Vegetarianism Tim Radak, DrPH, RD
		Introduction
		Classification
		History of Vegetarianism
			Reasons for Choosing a Vegetarian Diet
			Prevalence of Vegetarianism
		Impact on Health
			Vegetarianism Through the Life Stages
				Special Topic 6.1 Nutrition and Growth for Vegetarian Children
			Comparing Health Effects of Vegetarian Versus Omnivore Diets
			Vegetarian Diets in the Treatment of Disease
				Special Topic 6.2 Vegetarian Diets for Obesity Prevention
		Nutritional Considerations
			Nutritional Deficiencies of the Typical American Diet
			Nutritional Benefits of Switching to a Plant-Based Diet
			Planning a Successful Vegetarian Diet
				Special Topic 6.3 Phytonutrients
			Dietary Planning Resources
		Going Green with Vegetarianism
			Nutritional Ecology
			Air Quality
			Soil Quality
			Water Usage
			Challenges in the Study of Environmental Impacts
			Climate Change
			Government Guidelines for Greener Diets
	Chapter 7 Meat and Meat Substitutes Courtney Winston Paolicelli, DrPH, RDN, LD, CDE
		Historical, Cultural, and Ecological Significance
			Beef
			Veal
			Lamb
			Pork
				Special Topic 7.1 H1N1 or “Swine Flu”
		Physical and Chemical Properties of Meats
			Structure of Meats
			Pigments
			Slaughtering and Aging
			Tenderizing Meats
			Heating Meats
			Freezing Meats
			Preserved and Processed Meats
			Meat Alternatives
				Special Topic 7.2 The FoodKeeper App
		Food Selection and Menu Planning
			Cuts of Meats
			Choosing Healthy Cuts
			Creating Well-Rounded Meals with Meats
		Basic Meat Preparation Techniques
			Heating and Cooking Methods
			Dry Heat Methods
				Special Topic 7.3 Heterocyclic Amines and Grilling Meat
			Moist Heat Methods
		Nutritional Properties
			Nutritional Value of Meats
			Nutrient Retention with Use of Dry Heat Cooking Methods
			Nutrient Retention with Use of Moist Heat Cooking Methods
		Going Green with Meats
			Impact of Meat Production on the Environment
			Changing the Environmental Impact of Meats
		Food Safety and Foodborne Illness
			Special Topic 7.4 E. coli O157:H7
		Meat Regulations and Quality
			Meat Inspection
				Special Topic 7.5 Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (“Mad Cow Disease”)
			Meat Grading
				Special Topic 7.6 Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus
	Chapter 8 Fish Bonnie L. Gerald, PhD, DTR
		Historical and Cultural Significance of Fish and Shellfish
		Types of Fish and Shellfish
			Fish
			Shellfish
		Physical and Chemical Properties
			Muscle and Connective Tissue
			Pigments
			Effect of Heat
			Effect of Additives
		Nutritional Properties
			Fish
		Cooking Methods
			Fish
			Shellfish
		Going Green with Fish
			Special Topic 8.1 Omega-3 Fatty Acid Content of Fish
			Fishing Industry Trends
				Special Topic 8.2 Oil Spills: The Economic and Environmental Impact
		Food Technology
			Fish Processing
			Packaging
		Food Safety
			Pathogens Common to Fish and Shellfish
				Special Topic 8.3 Fish Storage Principles and Products
			Inspection and Grading of Fish
				Special Topic 8.4 Mercury and Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Fish
			Ecosystem Approach
	Chapter 9 Poultry Bonnie L. Gerald, PhD, DTR
		Historical and Cultural Significance
		Types of Poultry
			Chicken
			Turkey
			Duck
			Geese
			Guinea Fowl
			Pheasant
			Quail
			Squab and Pigeon
			Wild Turkeys
			Ratites
		Physical and Chemical Properties
			Muscle
			Pigments
			Protein and Fats
			Effect of Heat
		Nutritional Properties
		Cooking Methods
			Special Topic 9.1 Sauces for Chicken and Fish
		Going Green with Poultry
			Poultry Industry Trends
		Food Technology
			Poultry Processing
			Packaging
		Food Safety
			Pathogens Common to Poultry
			Inspection and Grading of Poultry
			Farm-to-Fork System
	Chapter 10 Milk, Cheese, and Dairy Jacqueline Suarez, RDN
		Historical and Cultural Significance
		Physical and Chemical Properties
			Casein and Whey
			Pasteurization
			Homogenization
		Storage and Cooking
		Milk and Dairy Products
			Milk
			Cream
			Cultured Dairy Products
			Butter
			Cheese
			Ice Cream and Ice Milk
				Special Topic 10.1 Ice Cream and Frozen Dairy Desserts
		Food Selection, Menu Planning, and Basic Food Preparation Techniques
			Purchasing Milk and Dairy Products
			Menu Planning
			Basic Food Preparation Techniques
		Nutritional Value
			Calcium
			Vitamin D
		Impact of Milk and Dairy Products on Health
			Weight
			Muscle Mass and Recovery After Exercise
			Bone Health
			Oral Health
			Digestive Health
			Hypertension and Heart Disease
				Special Topic 10.2 Prebiotics and Probiotics
			Cancer
			Diabetes
			Other Health Conditions
		Food Technology
			Concentrated Milk Products
			Processed Cheese
			Dairy Substitutes
		Going Green with Milk Products
			Special Topic 10.3 Bovine Somatotropin in Cow’s Milk
			Special Topic 10.4 Antibiotic Resistance
			Greening the Industry
		Food Safety and Potential Foodborne Illness
			Common Pathogens
			The Pasteurized Milk Ordinance
			Concerns About Raw Milk
			Food Regulation and Food Quality
		Lactose Intolerance
	Chapter 11 Eggs and Egg Replacements Allison Mulvaney, MS, RDN, LDN
		Historical and Cultural Significance
			Eggs Around the World
			Eggs in the American Diet
		Physical and Chemical Properties
		Nutritional Properties
		Impact on Health
			Effects of Cholesterol from Eggs
			Egg Allergies
		Food Preparation Principles
			Roles of Eggs in Recipes
			Cooking Safely with Eggs
			Whole-Egg Preparation Techniques
			Uses of Egg Whites
			Egg Yolks in Desserts
			Cooking Eggs at High Altitudes
			Cooking with Egg Substitutes
		Food Technology
			History of Egg Product Development
			Processing of Egg Products
			Dried Egg Mixes
		Going Green with Eggs
			The Lives of Laying Hens
			Production Systems
			The Debate
		Food Safety
			Keeping Eggs Fresh and Bacteria-Free
			Controlling Parasites
			Regulating Agencies
			Salmonella on the Rise
			Egg Product Inspection
		Food Regulations
			Egg Grading
			Egg Sizing
			Egg Dating
			Labeling Egg Products
	Chapter 12 Fruits and Vegetables Catherine Frederico, MS, RDN, LDN
		Historical, Cultural, and Ecological Significance
			Botanical Definitions of Fruits and Vegetables
			Cultural Assimilation
		Physical and Chemical Properties
			Plant Cell Structure
				Special Topic 12.1 Natural and Artificial Food Coloring
			Ripening and Aging
			Enzymatic Browning
			Boiling or Steaming
			Acid–Base Chemistry
			Freezing
			Canning
			Drying
		Nutritional Properties
			Carbohydrates and Fiber
			Proteins and Fats
			Vitamins, Minerals, and Water
			Organic Versus Conventional Produce
			Impact on Human Health
				Special Topic 12.2 Resveratrol
		Menu Planning and Food Selection
			The Dietary Guidelines for Americans and MyPlate
			Purchasing Produce
				Special Topic 12.3 Farm to Plate
			Vegetarianism
		A Cornucopia of Produce Types
			Fruits
			Leaves
			Stems
			Roots and Tubers
			Other “Vegetables”
		Selecting the Best Produce
			Understanding Ripeness
		Food Preparation
			Washing and Cooking
			Adding Flavoring
			Finding Inspiration
		Food Technology
		Going Green
			Organic Produce
			Minimizing Cost
			Saving Energy During Cooking and Storage
			Reducing the Environment Impact of Production
		Food Safety and Regulations
			Special Topic 12.4 Food Safety
	Chapter 13 Grains, Cereals, Pasta, Rice, Flour, and Starch Cookery Diane K. Tidwell, PhD, RD
		Historical, Cultural, and Ecological Significance
			Wheat
			Rice
			Corn
			Barley
			Oats
			Rye and Triticale
			Sorghum
			Millets
			Other Plants Used as Grains
		Physical and Chemical Properties
			Physical Structure of the Cereal Grain
			Processing Cereal Grains by Milling
			Gluten Chemistry
				Special Topic 13.1 Gluten Intolerance: Celiac Disease and Nonceliac Gluten Sensitivity
			Starch
				Special Topic 13.2 Food Thickeners and Dysphagia
		Cereal Products
			Wheat
			Rice
			Corn
			Barley
				Special Topic 13.3 History of Beer Making
			Oats
			Rye
			Millets
			Breakfast Cereals
			Other Plants Used as Grains
		Nutritional Properties and Impact on Health
			Whole Grains
			Fortified Grains
		Going Green with Grains
			Farming Practices
			Packaging
		Food Safety and Regulations
			Storage
			Enrichment and Fortification
	Chapter 14 Yeast Breads, Quick Breads, and Cakes Jeannie Houchins, MA, RDN
		Historical, Cultural, and Ecological Significance
		Physical and Chemical Properties
			Yeast Breads
			Making Yeast Breads
			Quick Breads and Cakes
		Bread Selection Criteria
			Staling and Spoiling
			Sensory Research
			Choosing Bread
				Special Topic 14.1 Phytonutrients and Spices
		Nutritional Properties and Impact on Health
		Food Technology
		Going Green with Breads
			Wheat
			Commercial Breads and Cakes
		Food Safety and Foodborne Illness
			Bacteria
			Mold
			Yeasts
			Fortification and Enrichment
	Chapter 15 Fats and Oils Jill Meagher Merrigan, MS, RDN, LDN
		Historical and Cultural Significance
		Physical and Chemical Properties
			Natural Fatty Acids
			Partially Hydrogenated (Trans) Fatty Acids
			Natural Sources of Trans Fats
			Nutritional Properties
			Omega Fatty Acids
		Impact of Fats on Health
			Fatty Acids as Functional Foods
			Health Risks of Trans Fats
			Lessons from the Mediterranean Diet
		Food Preparation and Storage Principles
			Special Topic 15.1 Nuts and Nut Allergies
			The Most Popular Plant Oils for Cooking
			Deep Fat Frying
			Baking with Fats
			Avoiding Rancidity
		Improving Fat Intake
			Menu Planning
			Grocery Shopping
			Meal Preparation
		Food Technology
			Plant Breeding and Genetic Engineering
			Modified Hydrogenation
			Fractionation and Interesterification of Fats
			Reformulating Food Products to Remove Trans Fats
			Greening Fats and Oils
			Fat Substitutes
				Carbohydrate-Based Substitutes
				Protein-Based Substitutes
				Fat-Based Substitutes
				The Dilemma of Using Fat Substitutes
			Food Regulations
				Trans Fats Labeling
				Butter Products
				Fat Substitutes
	Chapter 16 Sugar and Sugar Substitutes SeAnne Safaii-Waite, PhD, RDN, LDN
		Historical, Cultural, and Ecological Significance
			Products of the Sugar Industry
		Physical and Chemical Properties
		Types of Sugars and Sweeteners
			Caloric or Nutritive Sweeteners
				Special Topic 16.1 Honeybees in Trouble
			Identifying Added Sugars in Foods
			Artificial Sweeteners
				Special Topic 16.2 Safety of Non-nutritive Sweeteners: A History
			Future Artificial Sweeteners
				Special Topic 16.3 Super-Tasters
				Special Topic 16.4 Digestive Issues: News on FODMAPs
		Roles of Sugar in Food Preparation
			Baking
			Candy Making
			Sugar’s Role in Canning and Freezing
		Impact on Health
			Special Topic 16.5 Role of Sugar in Dental Caries
			Current Sugar Consumption Versus Recommendations
				Special Topic 16.6 The U.S. Obesity Crisis
			Sweeteners and Weight Gain
		Going Green
	Chapter 17 Beverages: Coffee, Tea, Sports and Energy Drinks, and Sugar-Sweetened Beverages Carole Palmer, EdD, RDN, LDN
		Coffee
			Historical, Cultural, and Ecological Significance
			Coffee Production
			Menu Planning
			Nutritional Properties
				Special Topic 17.1 Distilled Liquors
			Impact on Health
			Food Safety and Foodborne Illness
			Going Green with Coffee
				Special Topic 17.2 Fair Trade Coffee
		Tea
			Historical, Cultural, and Ecological Significance
			Tea Production
			Meal Planning
			Nutritional Properties
			Impact on Health
				Special Topic 17.3 Wine and Winemaking
			Food Safety
			Food Technology
			Going Green with Tea
		Sports Beverages
			Historical, Cultural, and Ecological Significance
			Physical and Chemical Properties
				Special Topic 17.4 Carbonated Beverages and Soft Drinks
			Food Safety and Regulations
				Special Topic 17.5 Ergogenic Aids in Sports Drinks
				Special Topic 17.6 Phytonutrients in Sports Beverages
			Making Sports Drinks Green
	Chapter 18 Food Preservation and Packaging Jennifer Lerman Sczerbinski, MPH, RDN, LDN
		Food Preservation
			Water Activity and Osmotic Stress
				Special Topic 18.1 Sodium Intake and Food Processing
			Acidity
			Thermal Processing
				Special Topic 18.2 Thermal Food Processing
			Refrigeration and Freezing
			Drying, Smoking, and Freeze-Drying
			Fermentation
			Microwaves and Irradiation
			Effects of Preservation on Nutrient Composition
			Newer Technologies in Food Preservation
				Special Topic 18.3 Pesticides in Our Food
			Food Packaging
				Common Packaging Materials
				Advances in Food Packaging Technologies
					Special Topic 18.4 Safety of Packaging Material
				Quality Control
					Special Topic 18.5 Military Packaging: Technology in Action
				Going Green with Food Processing and Packaging
					Source Reduction
					Composting
					Biodegradable Packaging
					Recycling
					Challenges
Appendix A Herbs and Health Kimberly Owen
Appendix B Spices and Health Abby Calcutt
Appendix C Measurement Conversions and Equivalents
Glossary
Index