Ethnopharmacology and OMICS Advances in Medicinal Plants Volume 2: Revealing the Secrets of Medicinal Plants

Foreword
Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Contributors
Abbreviations
1: Medicinal Potential of Traditional Rice of India for Widespread Health Benefits
	1.1	 Introduction
	1.2	 Ancient Wisdom: Medicinal Rice in Traditional Medicine
	1.3	 Nutritional Composition of Rice
		1.3.1	 Carbohydrate
		1.3.2	 Cholesterol
		1.3.3	 Protein
		1.3.4	 Vitamins
		1.3.5	 Minerals
	1.4	 The Science of Healing: Medicinal Properties of Rice
	1.5	 Indigenous Rice Varieties as a Medicinal Plant
		1.5.1	 Njavara
		1.5.2	 Red Rice
		1.5.3	 Gathuwan
		1.5.4	 Bhejari
		1.5.5	 Sarai Phool
		1.5.6	 Jeerakasala
		1.5.7	 Kichili Samba and Seeraga Samba
		1.5.8	 Kavuni
		1.5.9	 Kalanamak
		1.5.10	 Chinachang
	1.6	 Conclusion
	References
2: Diversity, Distribution, and Genetic Resources in Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. (Mulethi)
	2.1	 Introduction
	2.2	 Geographical Distribution
	2.3	 Botanical Description
	2.4	 Climatic Requirements and Agronomic Practices
	2.5	 Bioactive Compounds and Their Properties
	2.6	 Genetic Diversity
	2.7	 Germplasm Resources
	2.8	 DNA Barcoding
	2.9	 Epigenetic Diversity
	2.10	 Conclusion
	References
3: Genetic Resources and Breeding Strategies for Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.)
	3.1	 Introduction
	3.2	 Natural Setting and Geographical Distribution
	3.3	 Genetic Diversity
	3.4	 Biochemical Variation
	3.5	 Ethnopharmacological Properties
	3.6	 Breeding Strategies
	3.7	 Conclusion
	References
4: Genetic Resources and Variations in Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Bentham
	4.1	 Introduction
	4.2	 Taxonomic Classification and Geographical Distribution
	4.3	 Ethnopharmacological Properties
	4.4	 Genetic Diversity
		4.4.1	 Morphological Variation
		4.4.2	 Molecular Variations
		4.4.3	 Phytochemical Variation
	4.5	 Tissue Culture Techniques
	4.6	 Conclusion
	References
5: Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch: Botanical, Biochemical, Therapeutical Aspects and Conservation Strategies
	5.1	 Introduction
	5.2	 Geographical Distribution
	5.3	 Botanical Description
	5.4	 Bioactive Constituents in Essential Oil of S. costus
	5.5	 Major Therapeutics Potential of S. costus
		5.5.1	 Anti-Inflammatory Properties
		5.5.2	 Anti-Tumor Properties
		5.5.3	 Hepatoprotective Properties
		5.5.4	 Antibacterial Properties
		5.5.5	 Cardiovascular Properties
		5.5.6	 Anti-Parasitic Properties
		5.5.7	 Angiogenesis and Spasmolytic Activity
		5.5.8	 Anti-Hyperlipidemic Properties
	5.6	 Challenges
		5.6.1	 Agronomic and Agro-Ecological Issues
		5.6.2	 Socio-Economic Consideration
	5.7	 Good Agricultural Practices
		5.7.1	 Climate
		5.7.2	 Seed Germination
		5.7.3	 Soil and Field Preparation
		5.7.4	 Propagation
		5.7.5	 Nutrient Management
		5.7.6	 Harvesting/Post-Harvesting
		5.7.7	 Extraction
	5.8	 Conclusion and Future Prospects
	References
6: Distribution, Challenges, and Conservation of an Industrially Important Medicinal Plant, Pushkarmool (Inula racemosa Hook. f.)
	6.1	 Introduction
	6.2	 Geographical Distribution
	6.3	 Botanical Description
	6.4	 Ethnopharmacology
	6.5	 Pharmaceutical Uses
	6.6	 Extraction and Chemical Constituents of Essential Oil
	6.7	 Challenges
		6.7.1	 Ever-Growing Demand
		6.7.2	 Threatened Population
		6.7.3	 Cultivation of Medicinal Plants
		6.7.4	 Legalized Market System
	6.8	 Conservation
		6.8.1	 Conservation by Tissue Culture Techniques
		6.8.2	 In Situ Conservation
		6.8.3	 Ex Situ Conservation
	6.9	 Agrotechnology for Cultivation
		6.9.1	 Climate and Soil Conditions
		6.9.2	 Nursery Preparation and Propagation
		6.9.3	 Land and Bed Preparation
		6.9.4	 Transplanting
		6.9.5	 Management Practices
		6.9.6	 Harvesting and Post-Harvest Practices
		6.9.7	 Yield
	6.10	 Conclusion and Future Prospects
	References
7: Beyond the Bark: Endophytic Fungal Diversity in Taxus spp. and Their Crucial Role in Medicinally Relevant Secondary Metabolites
	7.1	 Background
	7.2	 Taxus spp. as Traditional Medicine
	7.3	 Endophytic Fungal Diversity of Taxus spp.
	7.4	 Secondary Metabolites Produced by Taxus Species-Based Endophytic Fungi
	7.5	 Mechanism of Production of Secondary Metabolites by Endophytes
	7.6	 Patents in the Field of Taxus spp.-Based Taxol-Producing Endophyte Fungi
	7.7	 Future Prospects of Endophyte Research Regarding Taxus
	References
8: Delving into Medicinal Plant Microbiomes: Utilizing Advanced Approaches to Decipher Functional Potential for Plant Health and Therapeutic Properties
	8.1	 Introduction
	8.2	 Role of Microbiome in Plants
	8.3	 The Distinct Microbiome of Plants
		8.3.1	 Rhizospheric Microbiome
		8.3.2	 Phyllospheric Microbiome (Plant Aerial Surface Microbiome)
		8.3.3	 Endophytic/Endosphere Microbiomes (Endomicrobiome)
	8.4	 Techniques and Tools for the Understanding of Plant Microbiome
		8.4.1	 Amplicon-Based Sequencing
		8.4.2	 Metagenome Shotgun Sequencing
		8.4.3	 Culturome
		8.4.4	 Metatranscriptome
		8.4.5	 Virome
		8.4.6	 Synthetic Microbial Communities (SynComs)
		8.4.7	 Genome-Wide Association Study: To Understand the Genetic Basis of Secondary Metabolite
	8.5	 Conclusion
	References
9: DNA Barcoding of Medicinal Plants for Conservation Purposes
	9.1	 Introduction
	9.2	 Medicinal Plants and the Importance of Conservation
		9.2.1	 Definition of Medicinal Plants
		9.2.2	 History of Medicinal Plants Uses
		9.2.3	 The Medicinal Plants in the World
		9.2.4	 The Development of Medicinal Plants Used for Medication
		9.2.5	 Challenges to Medicinal Plants’ Conservation and Sustainable Use
		9.2.6	 Recent Facts on Medicinal Plants
	9.3	 The Concept of DNA Barcoding
		9.3.1	 Definition of DNA Barcoding
		9.3.2	 The History of DNA Barcoding for Plants and Its Development
		9.3.3	 DNA Barcoding for Plants
		9.3.4	 How the DNA Barcoding Works
	9.4	 Use of DNA Barcoding for Plant Conservation Purposes
		9.4.1	 Species Identification, Genetic Diversity, and Population Structure Assessment
			9.4.1.1	 Species Identification
			9.4.1.2	 Genetic Diversity
			9.4.1.3	 Plant Population Structure
		9.4.2	 Identifying New Species
	9.5	 Use of DNA Barcoding for Medicinal Plants Conservation Purposes
		9.5.1	 Protecting Endangered Medicinal Plants Species from Being Harvested at Excessive Rates
		9.5.2	 Preserving Bioprospecting-Based Resources for Future Generations
		9.5.3	 Safeguarding Users from Herbal Product Adulteration
	9.6	 Recommendations and Actions from DNA Barcoding Implementation
		9.6.1	 Comprehensive Approach for Preserving Medicinal Plants from Extinction
		9.6.2	 Sustainable Use of Bioprospecting-Based Resources
		9.6.3	 Implementation of Legal Frameworks and the Establishment of Regulatory Authorities for Users’ Safety and Health
	9.7	 Conclusion
	References
10: Medicinal Plant-Based Nanoparticle Synthesis and their Diverse Applications
	10.1	 Introduction
	10.2	 Diverse Varieties of Nanoparticles
	10.3	 Synthesis of Medicinal Plant-Based Nanoparticles
	10.4	 Medicinal Plant-Based Nanoparticles
	10.5	 Application of Medicinal Plant-Based Nanoparticles
		10.5.1	 Medicinal Application
			10.5.1.1	 Drug Delivery Systems
			10.5.1.2	 Antimicrobial Activity
			10.5.1.3	 Nanomedicine
			10.5.1.4	 Biosensors
			10.5.1.5	 Diagnostic Imaging
			10.5.1.6	 Wound Healing Activity
			10.5.1.7	 Cancer Treatment
		10.5.2	 Agricultural Applications: Optimizing Crop Yield and Soil Health
			10.5.2.1	 Nano-Fertilizers
			10.5.2.2	 Pest and Disease Management
			10.5.2.3	 Soil Remediation
		10.5.3	 Energy: Developing a Foundation for Sustainable Solutions
		10.5.4	 Environmental Applications: Engaging with Pollution and Restoration
			10.5.4.1	 Water Purification
			10.5.4.2	 Air Filtration
		10.5.5	 Nanoelectronics: Paving Innovative Strategies for Improved Performance
		10.5.6	 Plant-Based Nanoparticles in Optoelectronics Technology
		10.5.7	 Nanoparticles in the Textile Sector
		10.5.8	 Nanoparticles in the Petroleum Industry
		10.5.9	 Nanoparticles in Material and Mechanical Fields
		10.5.10 Nanoparticle Application in the Food and Cosmetics Sector
	10.6	 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
11: Exploring the Influence of Nanotechnology on Medicinal Plants: Leveraging Nanoscale Marvels for Targeted Drug Delivery and Enhanced Therapeutic Efficacy
	11.1	 Introduction
	11.2	 Applications of Nanotechnology in In Vitro Propagation of Medicinal Plants
	11.3	 Molecular Imprinting Techniques for Separation of Bioactive Compounds
	11.4	 Applications of Nanopriming on Seed Germination and Plant Growth
	11.5	 Nanotechnology-Assisted Herbal Drug Delivery System for Medicinal Plants Derived Bioactive Molecules
		11.5.1	 Polymer-Based Herbal Drug Delivery System
		11.5.2	 Lipid-Based Herbal Drug Delivery System
	11.6	 Nanoencapsulation of Plant-Derived Medicinally Important Drugs
	11.7	 Importance of Herbal Biocides in the Form of Nanoparticles
	11.8	 Need for Novel Drug Delivery System
		11.8.1	 Nanotechnology as Novel Drug Delivery System
		11.8.2	 Techniques Used for Making Formulations
	11.9	 Conclusion
	References
12: Recent Advancement in Metabolomic Research: Applications and Limitations
	12.1	 Introduction
		12.1.1	 Metabolomics
		12.1.2	 FTIR Spectroscopy
		12.1.3	 Mass Spectrometry (MS)
		12.1.4	 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
		12.1.5	 Other Technologies
	12.2	 Applications of Metabolomics
		12.2.1	 Plant and Microbial Biotechnology
		12.2.2	 Pharmacology and Toxicology
		12.2.3	 Food Technology
		12.2.4	 Environmental Metabolomics
	12.3	 Application of Metabolomics in Medicinal Plants Research
	12.4	 Quality Control (QC) and Quality Assurance Approaches in Medicinal Plants
	12.5	 Limitations
	12.6	 Conclusions
	References
13: Functional Genomics of Medicinal Plants
	13.1	 Introduction
	13.2	 Medicinal Plant Genomics
		13.2.1	 Medicinal Plant Genomics (Case Studies)
			13.2.1.1	 Artemisia annua
			13.2.1.2	 Glycyrrhiza uralensis
			13.2.1.3	 Dendrobium officinale
			13.2.1.4	 Papaver somniferum
			13.2.1.5	 Salvia miltiorrhiza
			13.2.1.6	 Panax ginseng
	13.3	 Transcriptomics of Medicinal Plants
		13.3.1	 Applications of Transcriptomics in Research of Medicinal Plants
			13.3.1.1	 Mining Functional Genes of Medicinal Plants
			13.3.1.2	 Transcriptome Sequencing Based Molecular Markers Development
			13.3.1.3	 Developmental Mechanisms and Transcriptomics in Medicinal Plants
	13.4	 Medicinal Plants Proteomics
		13.4.1	 Applications of Proteome Research in Medicinal Plants
	13.5	 Medicinal Plants Metabolomics
	13.6	 Conclusion
	References
14: Transcriptome Analysis for Unraveling the Molecular Secrets of Medicinal Plants
	14.1	 Introduction
	14.2	 Evolution of Sequencing Technologies in Molecular Biology
	14.3	 Various Transcriptomic Approaches
		14.3.1	 Application of Transcriptomics
		14.3.2	 Determining the Transcripts
		14.3.3	 EST (Expressed Sequence Tag)
		14.3.4	 SAGE (Serial Analysis of Gene Expression)
			14.3.4.1	 Application of Serial Analysis of Gene Expression
		14.3.5	 CAGE
			14.3.5.1	 Application of Cap Analysis Gene Expression (CAGE)
		14.3.6	 Hybridization-Based Gene Microarray or Chip Technology
		14.3.7	 Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS)
		14.3.8	 Third-Generation Sequencing Technology
	14.4	 Transcriptomics: Exploring the Genetic Tapestry of Medicinal Plants
	14.5	 Advancement of Molecular Markers Derived from Transcriptome Sequencing
		14.5.1	 Application of Molecular Markers Used in Medicinal Plants
	14.6	 Investigating the Biosynthesis Routes of Secondary Metabolites
	14.7	 Transcriptomics: A Key Tool for Unraveling Molecular Mechanisms in Medicinal Plants
	14.8	 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
	References
15: Advancements in Medicinal Plants Genome Sequencing to Revolutionize Genomics
	15.1	 Introduction
	15.2	 Past, Present, and Future of Medicinal Plant Genome Sequencing
	15.3	 Development of Sequencing Technologies and Its Application on Medicinal Plants
		15.3.1	 Short-Read Sequencing
		15.3.2	 Long-Read Sequencing
		15.3.3	 Optical Genome Mapping
		15.3.4	 High-Throughput Chromosome Conformational Capture (Hi-C) Sequencing
	15.4	 Genome-Based Authentication of Medicinal Plants
		15.4.1	 Nuclear Genome
		15.4.2	 Chloroplast Genome
		15.4.3	 Mitochondrial Genome
	15.5	 DNA Barcoding of Medicinal Plants
	15.6	 Types of DNA Barcode Markers for Plants
		15.6.1	 DNA Barcode Markers of Single Locus
		15.6.2	 DNA Barcode Markers of Multiple Locus
		15.6.3	 Genome-Based DNA Barcode Markers
	15.7	 Combining DNA Barcoding with Other Molecular Technologies
		15.7.1	 The Bar-HRM Technology
		15.7.2	 Metabarcoding
	15.8	 Advantages of Medicinal Plant Genome Sequencing
		15.8.1	 Genomics-Assisted Herb Breeding
		15.8.2	 Herbal Synthetic Biology
	15.9	 Challenges in the Medicinal Plant Genome Sequencing
	15.10	 Conclusion
	References
16: Big Data Analysis of Medicinal Plants
	16.1	 Introduction
	16.2	 Big Datasets for Medicinal Plants
		16.2.1	 Genomics
		16.2.2	 Transcriptomics
		16.2.3	 Proteomics
		16.2.4	 Metabolomics
	16.3	 Big Data for Deciphering the Complexity of Medicinal Plants
	16.4	 Challenges in Extensive Data Management
	16.5	 Challenges in Extensive Data Analysis of Medicinal Plants
	16.6	 Conclusion
	References
17: Phyto-Epigenetics: An Approach to Unlock Myriads of Genetic Predisposition
	17.1	 Introduction
		17.1.1	 Molecular Basis of Epigenetics
			17.1.1.1	 Mitotic Bookmarking: A Key Player of Architectural Epigenetics
		17.1.2	 Core of Histones
		17.1.3	 Epitranscriptomics
	17.2	 Epigenetics and Diseases
		17.2.1	 Cancer
		17.2.2	 Neurological Disorder
		17.2.3	 Cardiovascular Diseases
	17.3	 Epigenetics and Medicine
		17.3.1	 Phyto-epigenetics
			17.3.1.1	 Polyphenols
			17.3.1.2	 Quercetin
			17.3.1.3	 Curcumin
			17.3.1.4	 Luteolin
			17.3.1.5	 Silibinin
	17.4	 Phytoepigenetics and Artificial Intelligence
	17.5	 Conclusion
	References
18: Challenges, Advancements, and Opportunities in Genome Editing: A Medicinal Plant Perspective
	18.1	 Introduction
	18.2	 Meganucleases (MegNs)
	18.3	 Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFNs)
	18.4	 Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs)
	18.5	 Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-Associated Protein 9 (Cas9)
	18.6	 Delivery of CRISPR-Cas9 Into Plant Cells
	18.7	 CRISPR-Cas9 System and Its Off-Target Effects in Plants
	18.8	 CRISPR-Cas9 Mediated Orthogonal Genome Editing in Plants
	18.9	 CRISPR-Cas9 for Precision Genome Editing
	18.10	 Productivity Enhancement of Medicinal Plants: Potent Application of CRISPR/Cas Genome Editing Tool
		18.10.1	 Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz (Brassicaceae)
		18.10.2	 Artemisia annua (L.) (Compositae)
		18.10.3	 Papaver somniferum (L.) (Papaveraceae)
		18.10.4	 Nicotiana tabacum (L.) (Solanaceae)
		18.10.5	 Salvia miltiorrhiza (Bunge) (Lamiaceae)
		18.10.6	 Dioscorea zingiberensis (C.H.Wright) (Dioscoreaceae)
		18.10.7	 Rehmannia glutinosa (Gaertn.) DC (Plantaginaceae)
		18.10.8	 Dendrobium officinale (Kimura and Migo) (Orchidaceae)
	18.11	 Conclusion
	References
19: Intellectual Property Rights Related to Medicinal Plants
	19.1	 Introduction
	19.2	 IPR and Its Relevance to Medicinal Plants
	19.3	 Patents
	19.4	 Plant Variety Protection (PVP)
	19.5	 Trademarks
	19.6	 Trade Secrets and Proprietary Information
	19.7	 Geographical Indication (GI)
	19.8	 Biodiversity Conservation
	19.9	 International Agreements and Conventions
		19.9.1	 The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
		19.9.2	 The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA)
		19.9.3	 Nagoya Protocol
		19.9.4	 Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement
		19.9.5	 World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
	19.10	 Bonn Guidelines
	19.11	 Key Provisions of the Bonn Guidelines
		19.11.1	 Prior Informed Consent (PIC)
		19.11.2	 Mutually Agreed Terms (MAT)
	19.12	 Benefit-Sharing
	19.13	 Biopiracy and Ethical Considerations
		19.13.1	 Biopiracy
		19.13.2	 Categories of Biopiracy
			19.13.2.1	 Patent-Based Biopiracy
			19.13.2.2	 Non-patent Biopiracy
	19.14	 Conclusions
	References
20: Effect and Response of Medicinal Plants to Abiotic Stress
	20.1	 Introduction
	20.2	 Effect of Environmental Change and Pollutants on Plant Health
	20.3	 Effect of Various Abiotic Stresses on Medical Plants
		20.3.1	 Effect of Salinity Stress on Medicinal Plant
		20.3.2	 Effect of Temperature Stress on Medicinal Plants
		20.3.3	 Effect of Drought Stress on Medicinal Plants
		20.3.4	 Effect of Flood (Waterlogging) Stress on Medicinal Plants
		20.3.5	 Effect of Light on Medicinal Plant
		20.3.6	 Effect of UV Radiation on Medicinal Plants
		20.3.7	 Heavy Metal Stress on Medicinal Plant
	20.4	 Stress Tolerance Mechanisms in Medicinal Plants
	20.5	 Conclusion
	References
21: Medicinal Plants and Their Clinical Uses
	21.1	 Introduction
	21.2	 The History of Medicinal Plants
		21.2.1	 How Do Wild Animals Discover Medicinal Plants?
	21.3	 Traditional Medicinal Plants
	21.4	 Characteristics of Medicinal Plants
		21.4.1	 Herbal Medicine
			21.4.1.1	 Plant Compounds with Clinical Properties
				21.4.1.1.1 Polyphenols
				21.4.1.1.2 Flavonoids
				21.4.1.1.3 Brassinosteroids (BRs)
	21.5	 Clinical Uses of Different Medicinal Plants
		21.5.1	 Aloe vera
		21.5.2	 Arctium lappa (Burdock)
		21.5.3	 Andrographis paniculata (Green Chiretta)
		21.5.4	 Blumea balsamifera (Ngai Camphor)
		21.5.5	 Camellia sinensis (Green Tea)
		21.5.6	 Cinnamomum cassia (Cinnamon)
		21.5.7	 Curcuma longa (Turmeric)
		21.5.8	 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (China Rose)
		21.5.9	 Lavandula angustifolia (Lavender)
		21.5.10	 Melissa officinalis (Lemon Balm)
		21.5.11	 Crocus sativus (Saffron)
	21.6	 Future Perspective
	21.7	 Conclusion
	References
22: Insights on the Integration of Ethnopharmacology and Omics in Medicinal Plant Research
	22.1	 Medicinal Plants and Their Ethnopharmacological Properties
	22.2	 Introduction to Ethnopharmacology and Omics
	22.3	 Indigenous Knowledge and Therapeutic Plants
	22.4	 Ethnopharmacology in Modern Healthcare
	22.5	 Omics Technologies: Tools for Modern Research
	22.6	 Genomics and Its Applications
		22.6.1	 DNA Microarray Technology (First Generation)
		22.6.2	 Sanger Sequencing (First-Generation Sequencing)
		22.6.3	 Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) (Second-Generation Sequencing)
		22.6.4	 Third-Generation Sequencing (TGS)
	22.7	 Transcriptomics: Studying Gene Expression
	22.8	 Proteomics: Analyzing Proteins
	22.9	 Metabolomics: Profiling Metabolites
	22.10	 Integrating OMICS Data
	22.11	 Ethnopharmacology and Genomics
	22.12	 Examples of Ethnopharmacological Discoveries Enabled by Omics
	22.13	 Challenges and Barriers
	References
23: Investigating the Therapeutic Potential of Medicinal Plants in Managing Mental Health Disorders
	23.1	 Introduction
	23.2	 Depression
		23.2.1	 Herbs Used in Treatment
			23.2.1.1	 Roseroot (Rhodiola rosea)
			23.2.1.2	 Saffron (Crocus sativus)
			23.2.1.3	 St. John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum)
			23.2.1.4	 Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill. Lamiaceae)
	23.3	 Anxiety
		23.3.1	 Herbs Used in Treatment
			23.3.1.1	 California Poppy (Eschscholzia californica)
			23.3.1.2	 Kava (Piper methysticum)
			23.3.1.3	 Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri)
	23.4	 Insomnia
		23.4.1	 Herbs Used in Treatment
			23.4.1.1	 Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha)
			23.4.1.2	 Chamomile (Matricaria recutita)
			23.4.1.3	 Valerian (Valeriana spp.)
	23.5	 Conclusion
	References