Environmental Geochemistry. Site Characterization, Data Analysis and Case Histories

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ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY:
 SITE CHARACTERIZATION, DATA ANALYSIS AND CASE HISTORIES
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Contents
Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgments
1:
Field Methods in Regional Geochemical Surveys
	Introduction
	Sampling Media
	Sampling Density
	Sampling Network
	Quality Assurance in Sampling
	Sampling Procedures
		General Aspects of the Fieldwork
		Stream Waters
		Sediments
		Soils
	Documentation of the Field Data
	Photographing
	Sample Archive
	References
2:
Sampling Methods for Site Characterization
	Introduction
		Exploratory Sampling
		Monitoring
		Presence/Absence Sampling
	Site Characterization
		Initial Site Assessment
	Basic Sampling Types
		Random Sampling
		Stratified Random Sampling
		Systematic Sampling (Grid)
		Judgmental Sampling
	Some Further Sampling Considerations
		Depth Sampling
		Types of Samples
		Number of Samples
		Composite Sampling
		Statistical Considerations
		Sampling Bias
		Control (Background) Samples
		Sampling Tools
		Field Measurement
		Sample Handling
		Documenting Sampling
	References
3:
Contaminated Groundwater Sampling and Quality Control of Water Analyses
	Introduction
	Groundwater Sampling Objectives
		Planning and Preparation
	Choosing the Right Portable Sampling Devices
		Grab Samplers
		Passive Diffusion Bag Sampler
		SnapSampler
		HydraSleeve
		Inertial Pumps
		Peristaltic Pumps
		Gas-Operated Bladder Pumps
		Electric Submersible Pumps
		Common Materials Used in Sampling Devices
	Avoiding Cross-Contamination
	Water-Level Measurements
	Well Purging Techniques
		Specified Number of Well Volumes
		Low-Flow Purging
		``No Purge´´ Sampling
		Dedicated Pump Versus Portable Sample Collection
	On-Site Water-Quality Measurements
		Temperature
		pH
		Specific Electrical Conductance
		Alkalinity
		Dissolved Oxygen
		Oxidation-Reduction Potential
	Preservation and Handling of Samples
		Filtration
		Addition of Preservatives
		Solvent Extraction
		Cooling or Freezing
		Sample Containers
	Quality Assurance and Quality Control Procedures
		Blank Samples
		Laboratory Blanks
		Field Blanks
		Replicate Samples
		Spiked Samples
		Labeling
		Transport
		Laboratory Reception
		Chain of Custody
	Data Validation
		Comparison of Field and Laboratory Values
		Comparison With Other Samples From the Same Source
		Comparison With Other Samples From the Area
		Comparison of SEC and TDS
		Evaluation of Charge Balance Errors
		Comparison of Measured and Calculated TDS (or Measured and Calculated SEC)
		Apparent Anomalies and Impossibilities
	Health and Safety in Fieldwork
	References
4:
The Collection of Drainage Samples for Environmental Analyses From Active Stream Channels
	Introduction
	Drainage Basins
	Drainage Sampling
	Sampling Strategy
	Procedures
		Generic Sampling Considerations
			Reliability of Sampling Teams
			Avoiding Contamination
		Sampling Team and Responsibilities
		Field Sampling Equipment
		Sampling Procedures
		Site Selection
		Collecting a Stream Water
		Collecting Stream Sediment
		Collecting Panned Concentrate
		Completion of Sampling
		Collecting Duplicate Samples
		Dry Sites
		Control Samples
		Health and Safety
	Discussion
		Sampling Equipment
		Representative Nature of Drainage Sediments
		Other Drainage Site Media
	Conclusions
	References
5:
Data Conditioning of Environmental Geochemical Data: Quality Control Procedures Used in the British Geological ...
	Introduction
	Planning Quality Control-Quality Assurance
		Appropriate and Well-Documented Procedures
		Sample Numbering
		Control Samples
	Raw Data Checking
		Data Checking
		Dealing with Missing, Semiquantitative and Unreliable Data
	Statistical Analyses and Plotting of Control Sample Data
		Control Charts
		Duplicate-Replicate Plots
		Hierarchical Analysis of Variance
	Leveling Data
		Between Batch and Between Field Campaign Data Leveling
		Leveling Data With Differing Lower Limits of Detection
		Leveling Data Determined by Different Analytical Method
	Discussion
	References
6:
Gas Chromatographic Methods of Chemical Analysis of Organics and Their Quality Control
	Introduction
	Sample Preparation-Aqueous Samples
		Purge and Trap
		Headspace
		Liquid/Liquid Extraction
		Solid Phase Extraction
		Solid Phase Microextraction
	Sample Preparation-Soil Samples
		Purge and Trap
		Soxhlet Extraction
		Shaker Table
		Ultrasonic Probe
		Accelerated Solvent Extraction
	Clean-Up Techniques
		Adsorption ``Clean-Up´´ Columns
		Size-Exclusion Columns
		Lipid Destruction
		Sulfur Removal
		Evaporation Steps
	Instrumental Analysis
		Flame Ionization Detector
		Electron Capture Detector
		Nitrogen/Phosphorus Detector
		Photo Ionization Detector
		Mass Spectrometry
		High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry
	Data Analysis
		External Standard Calculations
		Internal Standard Calculations
		Isotope Dilution Calculations
	Quality Control
		Internal QC
		Method Blanks
		Method Spikes (Laboratory Control Samples)
		Matrix Spikes and Matrix Spike Duplicates
		Surrogates
		Duplicates
		Reference Materials
		External Laboratory QC
	References
7:
Evaluation of Geochemical Background at Regional and Local Scales by Fractal Filtering Technique: Case Studies ...
	Introduction
	Multifractal Interpolation and Fractal Concentration-Area (C-A) Method
	Background/Baseline Geochemical Map Obtained by Fractal Filtering (S-A) method
	Pb and U Background Values for Campania Region Stream Sediments
	Pb Background Values for the Volcanic Soils of the Metropolitan and Provincial Areas of Napoli
	Conclusions
	References
8:
Geochemical Mapping of Urban Areas
	Introduction
	Definition of Geochemical Background and Baseline at an Urban Scale
	Planning Urban Geochemical Mapping
	Sampling Protocols and Field Activities
	Sample Preparation and Analyses
	Geochemical Data Presentation
		GIS-Aided Techniques for Urban Geochemical Data Presentation
		Dot Maps
		Interpolation
		Background and Baseline Maps
		Multivariate Analysis and Scores Mapping
		Risk Mapping
	References
9:
Chemical Speciation to Assess Bioavailability, Bioaccessibility and Geochemical Forms of Potentially Toxic Met ...
	Introduction
	PTMs Forms in Soil and Bioavailability
	The Need of Speciation and Speciation Methods of PTMs in Soil
	Plant Bioavailability
		Metals in Soil Solution
		Single Chemical Methods to Assess Phytoavailable Metals in Soil
			Soil Extraction of Readily Soluble PTMs With 1M NH4NO3
		Contrasting Aspects in the Use of Single Chemical Methods to Define Plant-Available PTMs
	Human Bioavailability and Bioaccessibility
	PTM Partitioning Between Soil Geochemical Phases
		Sequential Chemical Extractions
		The BCR Sequential Extractions
		Problems and Options of Sequential Extractions
	Applications of PTM Speciation for Risk and Remediation Assessment
	Concluding Remarks
	References
10:
Extraction and Characterization of Pore Water in Contaminated Soils
	Introduction
		Soil Pore Water and the Concept of (Bio)availability
			Soil Pore Water Definition
			Bioavailability and Soil Pore Water Sampling
	Methods for Sampling Soil Pore Water
		Field-Based Methods
			Tension Samplers
			Passive Samplers
		Laboratory-Based Methods
	Description and Discussion of Selected Methods
		Rhizon Soil Moisture Samplers
			Materials
			Theoretical Basis of Method
			Zone of Influence
			Uses and Limitations for Soil Pore Water Extractions
		Passive Diffusion Samplers-Microdialysis Probes
			Materials
			Theoretical Basis of Method
			Uses and Limitations for Soil Pore Water Extractions
		Centrifugation
			Materials
			Theoretical Basis of Method
			Pore Water Extraction
			Uses and Limitations for Soil Pore Water Extractions
		Pressure Filtering (Squeezing)
			Materials
			Theoretical Basis of Method
			Pore Water Extraction
			Extraction Efficiency
			Uses and Limitations for Soil Pore Water Extractions
		Soil Suspensions
			Materials
			Theoretical Basis of Method
			Uses and Limitations for Soil Pore Water Extractions
		Diffusive Gradients in Thin Films Technique (DGT)
			Materials
			Theoretical Basis of Method
			Uses and Limitations for Soil Pore Water Studies
	Conclusions and Recommendations
	References
11:
Models of Geochemical Speciation: Structure and Applications
	Introduction
	History of Speciation Modeling
		Timeline of Speciation Modeling
		Major Chemical Components of Soils and Waters and their Significance for Speciation
	Modeling Metal Binding to Specific Ligands
		Modeling Binding to Simple Ligands
		Modeling Binding to Natural Organic Matter
			Ion-Binding Models for Humic Substances
		Surface Complexation Models for Cation and Anion Binding to Metal (Hydr)Oxide Surfaces
		Modeling Binding to Clays
			Ion Exchange: Electrostatic Approach
			Surface Complexation Approach
		Model Parameterization of Ion-Binding Models
	Applying Speciation Models to Soils and Waters
		Model Platforms/Speciation Codes
		Available Model Databases
		Data Requirements and Measurement Methods for Modeling the Free Ion
		Modeling Metal Partitioning in Soils
			General Data Requirements
			Quantification of Reactive Components of the Natural Assemblage
			Geochemically Reactive Element Contents
			Example of Modeling Metal Partitioning in Soils
		Modeling Metal Partitioning in Surface Waters
			General Data Requirements
			Literature Studies
			Example of Predicting Kds in Surface Waters
	Linking Metal Speciation to Bioavailability, Biotic Accumulation and Toxicity
		Introduction
		BLM Parameterization
		BLM and Related Model Applications
		Applications to Mixture Toxicity
		The WHAM-FTOX Approach
	Future Prospects
		Ion Binding to Organic Matter
		Mineral Surfaces
		Bioavailability and Toxicity
		Kinetics
		Application to Natural Systems
	Summary and Conclusions
	References
12:
Lead and Strontium Isotopes as Monitors of Anthropogenic Contaminants in the Surficial Environment
	Introduction
		Previous Work
	Analytical Techniques
	Case Study: Pb and As in Soils and Well Water, Mohr Orchards Site, Pennsylvania
		Geologic Setting
		Results
		Discussion
			Lead in Industrial Products and Impact on Modern Society
				Lead Toxicity
				Lead Producers
				Lead in Pesticides
				Lead in the Anthropocene
			Lead in the Former Orchards and in Regional Wells Outside of the Former Orchards
		Conclusions
	Summary Conclusions
	References
13:
Management of Hazardous By-products of Urban Waste Incineration: Some Considerations on the Italian Sit
	Introduction
	MSW Incineration
	Treatment of Flue Gas From MSW Incineration
	Management of Solid By-products From MSW Incineration
	Management of Hazardous By-products From MSW Incineration in Italy
	Conclusions
	References
14:
Cos Cob: A New Community Asset From an Old Contaminated Site
	Introduction
	Background: Cos Cob Power Plant, Connecticut
	Plans for Site Redevelopment
	Update Since 2008
		The Technical Solution
		The Challenges
	Finalizing the Project
	Conclusion
	References
15:
The Bagnoli-Napoli Brownfield Site in Italy: Before and After the Remediation
	Introduction
	Environmental Remediation of the Brownfield Site
	Geological Settings of the Bagnoli-Fuorigrotta Area and Stratigraphy of the Brownfield Site
	Potential Sources of Anthropogenic Pollution
	Hydrogeological Characteristics of the Bagnoli-Fuorigrotta Plain
	Site Characterization
		Monitoring, Phase I and II
		Chemical Analysis
		Statistical Analysis
		Monitoring of Groundwater
	Natural and Anthropogenic Components of the Pollution
	Chemical-Structural Characterization of Waste Material and Leachability Tests
	Asbestos Characterization and Remediation
	Preliminary Operative Remediation Plan
	Securing the Site
	Postremediation Events
	References
16:
Environmental Human Health Issues Related to Indoor Air Pollution from Domestic Biomass Use in Rural China: A ...
	Introduction
	IAP-The Magnitude of the Problem
	Deforestation and Domestic Solid Fuel in China
	Rural Versus Urban in China
	Domestic Biomass Use in Developing Countries
		Domestic Biomass Use in Rural China
	Emission Factors of Biomass Burning
	Types of Pollution from Biomass Burning
		Gases
		Particulate Matter
	Where There's Smoke There's Lung Disease
	Mitigation and Reduction of IAP in Rural China
	Conclusions
	References
17:
Applications of Geochemistry to Medical Geology
	Introduction
	Health-Related Geochemical Mapping: Examples
	Geochemical Controls on the Sources, Fate, Exposure Pathways, and Toxicity Effects of Geogenic and Anthropogenic Toxicants
		Geochemical Processes in the Environment That Influence Toxicants
		A Geochemical Perspective on Processes That Influence the Disposition and Effects of Toxicants in the Body
	Human Health Impacts of Organic Substances of Geogenic Origin
		Balkan Endemic Nephropathy
		Coal Aquifers and Renal/Pelvic Cancer
		Mountaintop Removal Mining of Coal
			Water Quality
			Air Quality
			Toxicology
		Conclusion
	Aqueous Geochemistry: Selected Elements
		Arsenic
		Fluorine
	Coal Geochemistry and Health
		Health Impacts of Trace Elements in Coal
		Health Impacts of Uncontrolled Fires
		Black Lung Disease
		Lung Cancer
		A Health Benefit of Coal Geochemistry
	Conclusions
	Summary
	References
18:
Biological, Chemical, and Environmental Hazards of Desert Dust to Military Personnel
	Introduction
	``Operation Sandbox´´-Study of Airborne Particle Sizes, Quantity, and Other Health Risks
	Exposure to Mineralized Dust-Particle Size, Quantity, and Health Risks
	Exposure to Mineralized Dust-Chemical Content and Heavy and Trace Metals
	Exposure to Mineralized Dust-Biological Exposures and Infectious Diseases
	Medical Consequences of Middle East Dust Exposure
	Conclusions
	References
19:
Environmental Characteristics and Utilization Potential of Metallurgical Slag
	Introduction
	Metallurgical Processes
		Ferrous
		Nonferrous
	Factors That Influence Environmental Behavior
		Pathways of Exposure
		Physical Characteristics
		Major Element Composition and Primary Mineralogy
			Partitioning of Trace Elements
			Weathering Rates Of Sulfides, Silicates, Oxides, Glass, and Other Phases
		Trace Element Chemistry
		Leachate and Drainage Chemistry
		Secondary Mineralogy
		Climate and Hydrologic Conditions
	Slag as a Resource
		Utilization Potential
			Physical Characteristics
			Bulk Composition and Primary Mineralogy
		Recovery of Elements
			Element Concentrations and Partitioning
			Recovery Methods
	Environmental Liability or Valuable Resource?
		Evaluation Matrix
		Case Study: Legacy Ferrous Slag
	Conclusions
	References
20:
Polyurethane Foam-Based Passive Air Samplers in Monitoring Persistent Organic Pollutants: Theory and Application
	Introduction
	Principles
		Theory of Uptake by PAS
		Influence Factors of Sampling Rate
			Temperature
			Wind Speed
			Particles
		Estimation of Sampling Rate Using Depuration Compounds
	Progress of the PUF-PAS in Monitoring POPs
		Investigation of Atmospheric POPs on a Continental and Global Scale
			Global Atmospheric Passive Sampling Network
			European PUF-PAS Monitoring Network
			Asian Atmospheric Monitoring Project
			Passive Air Sampling in North and South America
		Special Subject Research on Atmospheric POPs
			Influence of the Monsoon on Atmospheric Transport of POPs
			Forest Filter Effect vs. Cold Trapping Effect
			Study of Urban-Rural Transects
			Investigation of POPs in the Atmosphere of Industrial Regions
			Estimations of Health Risk
	Case History
		Transport of Atmospheric OCPs From Plain to Mountain
			Study Area
			Passive Air Sampling
			Results and Discussion
				General Comments on Air Concentration
				Spatial and Seasonal Variations
				Environmental Sources and Fate
				Air-Soil Exchange
				Impact of Air Mass Transport
			Conclusions
		Program Introduction: Atmospheric POPs in Campania Region, Italy
	Perspective
		The Improved PUF-PAS
		Evaluation of PUF-PAS Performance
		The Establishment of Regular Monitoring Systems
		Studies of Environmental Behaviors and Toxicology
	References
21:
Legacies of Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs) in Soil of China-A Review, and Cases in Southwest an
	Introduction
	Origins and Environmental Chemistry of OCPs
		Origins and Properties of OCPs
			Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane
			Hexachlorocyclohexane
			Other OCPs to be Eliminated by the Stockholm Convention
		The Environmental Transport and Degradation of OCPs
			The Environmental Transport of OCPs
			The Environmental Degradation of OCPs
	The Past and Present of OCPs in China
		The Production and Application History of OCPs in China
		Distributions and Levels of OCPs in Soil of China
		Secondary Sources of OCPs
		Related Controlling Plans
	Regional Distributions and Factors Influencing the OCPs Distributions: Case Studies From Southwest and Southeast China
		Chengdu Economic Region, Sichuan: The Case of Southwest China
		Zhangzhou, Fujian: The Case of Southeast of China
		Summaries and New Missions
	Conclusions
	References
22:
Soil and Water Contamination by Potentially Hazardous Elements: A Case History From India
	Introduction
	PHEs and Their Effects
	Health and Environmental Effects of PHEs
		Arsenic
		Cadmium
		Chromium
		Copper
		Lead
		Zinc
	Description and Abstracted Case Studies of Some Contaminated Areas From India
		Soil Contamination in the Patancheru Industrial Development Area, Andhra Pradesh
		Metal Pollution of Water in an Industrial Area at Patancheru, Medak District, Andhra Pradesh
		Metal Soil Contamination in the Industrial Area of Surat, Gujarat
		Metal Contamination in Soils Around Manali Industrial Area, Chennai
		Metal Contamination in Soil Around Pali Industrial Area, Rajasthan
		Metal Distribution and Contamination in Soils of Thane-Belapur Industrial Development Area, Mumbai
		Katedan Industrial Development Area, Hyderabad-Detailed case study
	Description of the Study Area
		Soil and Geology
			Field Investigations and Sample Preparation
			Analytical Procedures
			Background (Reference) Data
			Results, Discussion, and Risk Assessment
		Soil Investigations
		Groundwater Investigations
			Contamination of Groundwater
		Surface Water Investigations
		Secondary Sources
	Risk Assessment and Methodology
	Conclusions
	Recommendations
	References
23:
A Microbial Analysis Primer for Biogeochemists
	Methods for Measuring Microbial Abundance
		Culture-Dependent Quantification Techniques: Direct Plate Count and MPN
		Culture-Independent Quantification Methods
	Methods for Measuring Microbial Diversity/Functions
		Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis
		PCR-Based Cloning, Sequencing
		PCR-Based High-Throughput Sequencing
		DNA Microarrays
		Metagenomics and Transcriptomics
		Proteomics and Metaproteomics
		Polar Lipid Fatty Acids Analysis
	References
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Z
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