Environmental geochemistry

Treatise on Geochemistry......Page 2
Executive Editor\'s Foreword......Page 3
9.01 Groundwater and Air Contamination: Risk, Toxicity, Exposure Assessment, Policy, and Regulation......Page 6
Typical Risks Encountered—Natural and Anthropogenic......Page 7
Examples of Contaminated Sites and Potential Risk Exposure Pathways......Page 8
Risk-based Corrective Actions......Page 9
Sources, Pathways, and Receptors: The Fundamental Algorithm for Risk Assessments......Page 10
Contaminant Surrogate Analysis......Page 11
Estimating Exposure Concentrations......Page 12
Estimating Chemical Intake......Page 13
Overview of Human Health Toxicology......Page 14
Quantifying Noncarcinogenic Risk: Reference Dosages......Page 15
Quantifying Carcinogenic Risk:  Slope Factors......Page 16
Determination of Noncarcinogenic Risk......Page 17
Source Characterization......Page 18
Evaluating Uncertainty......Page 19
References......Page 20
9.02 Arsenic and Selenium......Page 22
Introduction......Page 23
Water......Page 25
Arsenic......Page 27
Selenium......Page 29
Quality Control and Standard Reference Materials......Page 30
Abundance in Rocks, Soils, and Sediments......Page 31
Abundance and Distribution in Natural Waters......Page 32
Arsenic Species in Natural Waters......Page 38
Microbial Controls......Page 40
Release from Primary Minerals......Page 41
Role of Secondary Minerals......Page 42
Adsorption of Arsenic by Oxides and Clays......Page 43
Arsenic Transport......Page 44
Case Studies......Page 45
Abundance in Rocks, Soils, and Sediments......Page 50
Abundance and Distribution in Natural Waters......Page 52
Selenium Species in Water, Sediment, and Soil......Page 54
Adsorption of Selenium by Oxides and Clays......Page 56
Selenium Transport......Page 57
Case Studies......Page 59
References......Page 63
Metals: Pb, Zn, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni......Page 72
Sources of Metals......Page 73
Source and Pathways......Page 74
Geochemical Properties and Major Solute Species......Page 76
Occurrence in Rocks, Soils, Sediments, Anthropogenic Materials......Page 80
Geochemical Phase Associations in Soils and Sediments......Page 81
Historical Heavy Metal Fluxes to the Atmosphere......Page 85
Perturbed Heavy Metal Cycles......Page 86
Global Emissions of Heavy Metals......Page 88
US Emissions of Heavy Metals......Page 89
Paleolimnological Approach......Page 92
Age Dating......Page 94
Selected Reconstructed Metal Trends......Page 95
References......Page 105
9.04 Geochemistry of Mercury in the Environment......Page 111
Introduction......Page 112
The Global Mercury Cycle......Page 114
Solid Earth Abundance and Distribution......Page 116
Minable Deposits......Page 117
Volcanic Mercury Emissions......Page 118
Mercury Input to the Oceans via Submarine Volcanism......Page 121
Low-temperature Volatilization......Page 122
Mining......Page 123
Watersheds and Legacy Mercury......Page 124
Atmospheric Cycling and Chemistry of Mercury......Page 125
Aquatic Biogeochemistry of Mercury......Page 128
Environmental Mercury Methylation......Page 131
Removal of Mercury from the Surficial Cycle......Page 136
Models of the Global Cycle......Page 138
METAALICUS......Page 140
Tracing Atmospheric Mercury with 210Pb and Br......Page 141
Mercury and Organic Matter Interactions......Page 142
Summary......Page 143
References......Page 144
9.05 The Geochemistry of Acid Mine Drainage......Page 153
Overview of the Mining Process and Sources of Low-quality Drainage......Page 154
Coal......Page 155
Base-metal Deposits......Page 157
Precious-metal Deposits......Page 158
Pyrite Oxidation......Page 159
Pyrrhotite Oxidation......Page 162
Oxidation of Other Metal Sulfides......Page 163
Bacteria and Sulfide-mineral Oxidation......Page 165
Mechanisms of Acid Neutralization......Page 170
Soluble Sulfates: Other Elements......Page 173
Metal Oxides and Hydroxides......Page 174
Carbonate Minerals......Page 175
Secondary Sulfides......Page 176
Underground Workings......Page 177
Open Pits......Page 179
Waste-rock Piles......Page 180
Coal-mine Spoils......Page 183
Tailings Impoundments......Page 184
Laboratory Static Procedures......Page 187
Laboratory Dynamic Procedures......Page 188
Geochemical Models......Page 189
Reactive Solute-transport Models......Page 190
Uptake and Bioaccumulation......Page 191
Toxicity of Oxidation Products......Page 192
Approaches for Remediation and Prevention......Page 193
Controls on Sulfide Oxidation......Page 194
Passive Remediation Techniques......Page 197
References......Page 199
9.06 Environmental Geochemistry of Radioactive Contamination......Page 209
Approach and Outline of Chapter......Page 210
The Nature and Hazards of Radioactive Environmental Contamination......Page 211
Sources of Radioactivity......Page 212
Exposure to Background and Anthropogenic Sources of Radioactivity......Page 217
Health Effects and Radioactive Contamination......Page 218
Principles and Methods......Page 220
Results of Radionuclide Solubility, Speciation, and Sorption Studies......Page 229
Other Topics......Page 241
Short-term Behavior of Radionuclides in the Environment---Contamination from the Chernobyl Reactor Accident......Page 246
Natural Analogues for the Long-term Behavior of Radionuclides in the Environment---The Oklo Natural Reactor......Page 248
Remediation......Page 249
Geochemical Models in Risk Assessment......Page 251
Summary---Challenges and Future Research Needs......Page 252
References......Page 254
9.07 The Medical Geochemistry of Dusts, Soils, and Other Earth Materials......Page 267
Earth Materials Linked to Human Health......Page 268
Overview of the Health Effects of Earth Materials......Page 269
Routes of Exposure......Page 276
Toxicokinetics (ADME) and Bioavailability......Page 279
Blood Plasma......Page 284
Interstitial Fluids......Page 289
Gastrointestinal Fluids......Page 290
Sweat......Page 291
Methods used to assess the interactions of earth materials with, and their toxic effects upon, the human body......Page 292
Earth Materials in a Biosolubility and Bioreactivity Context......Page 293
Asbestos, Erionite, and Other Fibrous Materials......Page 294
Factors Influencing the Health Effects of Biodurable Minerals......Page 295
Mining Wastes, Tailings, Smelting By-products......Page 299
Volcanic Ash, Gases, and Vog......Page 303
Dust from Owens Lake, California, and Other Dry Lake Beds......Page 304
Soils......Page 305
Dusts Generated by the World Trade Center Collapse......Page 306
Summary......Page 308
References......Page 309
Nomenclature......Page 315
Aspects of Worldwide Concern over Eutrophication......Page 316
Indicators of Eutrophication and Sampling Methods......Page 317
Natural Eutrophication......Page 318
Cultural Eutrophication: Case Studies......Page 319
Lake Washington......Page 322
Lake Erie......Page 323
Lake Tahoe......Page 325
Lago Maggiore......Page 326
Lake Victoria......Page 327
Chesapeake Bay......Page 329
Control of Diffuse (Nonpoint) Nutrient Sources......Page 331
Control of Internal Nutrient Sources......Page 332
References......Page 333
Introduction......Page 336
River Salinization......Page 337
Lake Salinization......Page 339
Seawater Intrusion......Page 344
Mixing with External Saline Waters......Page 345
Salinization of Dryland Environment......Page 349
Urban Environment and Sewage Salinization......Page 351
Agricultural Drainage and the Unsaturated Zone......Page 352
Soil Salinization......Page 354
Wetland Salinization......Page 355
Elucidating the Sources of Salinity......Page 356
Remediation and the Chemical Composition of Treated Water Resources......Page 360
References......Page 362
9.10 Acidification and Acid Rain......Page 369
How Do We Describe Acidification?......Page 370
Has Long-term Acidification Occurred?......Page 374
What Controls Long-term Acidification?......Page 376
The Chemistry of Weathering-Long-term Control of Acidification......Page 378
High Discharge from Snowmelt and Rain......Page 381
Marine Aerosols......Page 382
Neutralization of Episodic and Longer-term Acidity......Page 383
Release of Aluminum and Other Metals......Page 384
Nutrient Availability......Page 385
Effects of Climate on Acidification......Page 386
CO2......Page 387
Biological Feedbacks......Page 388
Acidification Trajectories through Time......Page 389
Longitudinal Acidification......Page 390
British Isles......Page 391
South America......Page 392
Experimental Acidification of Terrestrial Ecosystems......Page 393
Experimental Acidification of Streams......Page 394
Nutrient Additions to Eliminate Excess NO3......Page 395
Steady-state Models......Page 396
Dynamic Models......Page 397
Chemical Recovery from Anthropogenic Acidification......Page 398
References......Page 401
Introduction......Page 409
Primary and Secondary Pollutants......Page 410
Ozone......Page 411
Particulates......Page 415
Environmental and Health Impacts......Page 417
Long-term Trends in Ozone and Particulates......Page 418
Ozone......Page 419
Chemistry of Aerosols......Page 423
Dynamics......Page 424
Ozone and Temperature......Page 426
New Directions: Evaluation Based on Ambient Measurements......Page 427
References......Page 430
Scope of the Problem......Page 434
Petroleum Chemical Composition......Page 437
Ecological Concerns and Human Exposure Pathways......Page 441
Petroleum Exploration, Production, and Processing......Page 443
Petroleum Transportation and Storage......Page 445
Petroleum Usage......Page 446
Transport Processes......Page 447
Abiotic Transformations......Page 454
Biotic Transformations......Page 455
Natural Attenuation Processes......Page 463
Engineered or Enhanced Remediation......Page 467
Challenges......Page 468
References......Page 469
Introduction......Page 476
Scope of Review......Page 479
Petrogenic Hydrocarbons......Page 480
Pyrogenic Sources of HMW Hydrocarbons......Page 483
Pathways......Page 487
Fate......Page 488
Sorption......Page 489
Volatilization......Page 491
Photochemical Reactions......Page 492
Biodegradation......Page 493
Carbon Isotope Geochemistry......Page 496
Carbon Isotope Variations in PAH Sources......Page 497
Weathering and Isotopic Composition......Page 499
Isotopic Source Apportionment of PAHs in St. John’s Harbor: An Example......Page 501
Synthesis......Page 504
References......Page 505
Introduction......Page 511
Persistent Organic Pollutants......Page 512
Biogenic Pollutants and Anthropogenic Non-POPs......Page 514
Adsorbable Organic Halogens......Page 515
Aryl Halides......Page 517
Phase Partitioning......Page 519
Ecological Considerations......Page 520
Matrix Interactions......Page 523
Microbial Reactivity......Page 524
Surface-mediated Reactivity......Page 527
Organic-matter-mediated Reactivity......Page 528
Predictive Models: Structure–Reactivity Relationships......Page 529
Implications for Environmental Cycling of Halogenated Hydrocarbons......Page 530
Knowledge Gaps and Fertile Areas for Future Research......Page 533
References......Page 534
Nomenclature......Page 540
Scope of This Review......Page 541
Variations in Pesticide Use over Time and Space......Page 542
Overview of Persistence in the Hydrologic System......Page 543
Partitioning among Environmental Matrices......Page 544
Partitioning between Soils, Sediments, and Natural Waters......Page 545
Partitioning between Aquatic Biota and Natural Waters......Page 548
Partitioning between the Earth’s Surface and the Atmosphere......Page 549
Transformations......Page 550
Neutral Reactions......Page 552
Electron-transfer Reactions......Page 555
Governing Factors......Page 556
Effects of Transformations on Environmental Transport and Fate......Page 568
Acknowledgments......Page 569
References......Page 570
Introduction......Page 577
Source and Leachate Composition......Page 578
Spreading of Pollutants in Groundwater......Page 580
Redox Environments and Redox Buffering......Page 582
Microbial Activity and Redox Processes......Page 585
Dissolved Organic Matter, Inorganic Macrocomponents, and Heavy Metals......Page 587
Xenobiotic Organic Compounds......Page 588
Landfill Leachate Plume......Page 590
Source, Geology and Hydrogeology......Page 597
Landfill Leachate Plume......Page 599
Monitored Natural Attenuation......Page 604
Engineered or Enhanced Remediation......Page 605
Future Challenges and Research Topics......Page 606
References......Page 607
Appendix 1. Periodic Table of the Elements......Page 611
Appendix 2. Table of Isotopes......Page 612
Appendix 3. The Geologic Timescale......Page 616
Appendix 4. Useful Values......Page 617