Environmental Endocrinology and Endocrine Disruptors: Endocrine and Endocrine-targeted Actions and Related Human Diseases

Series Preface
Volume Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
1 Environmental Endocrinology
	Introduction
		The Concept of an Endocrine Disruptor
		Environmental Factors and the Endocrine System
	Endocrine Physiology and Environmental Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals
		Hypothalamus and Pituitary Physiology
		Thyroid Physiology
		Adrenal Physiology
		Reproductive Physiology
		Bone Physiology
		Endocrine Pancreas, Adipose Tissue, and Cardiovascular Physiology
	Mechanisms of Environment-Mediated Endocrine Disruption
	Challenges and Future Directions
	Conclusion
	References
2 Environmental Impact on the Hypothalamus-Pituitary Axis
	Introduction
	Environmental Factors, EDCs, and the Pituitary
		Influences from the Environment
		Role of EDCs
		EDCs and Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Peripheral Glands Axes: An Overview
		Pituitary Tumors Pathophysiology and Clinical Expression: The Role of the Interaction Between EDCs, AHR, and AIP
		In Vitro Studies
		Animal Studies
		In Vivo Effects of EDC on Pituitary Gland
	Conclusion
	References
3 Environmental Endocrinology and the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis
	Introduction
	HPT Axis
	HPT Function and the Classes of EDCs
	Industrial Chemicals and the HPT Axis
	Organotin Compounds
	Organochlorines and Organophosphate Pesticides
	Phthalates and Plasticizers
	Heavy Metals
	Cosmetics and Sunscreen
	Food and Isoflavones
	Conclusions
	References
4 Environmental Impact on the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
	Introduction
	Part 1: The Mechanisms of Adaptation of the HPA Axis Under Environmental Stimuli
		The Stress System: Components and Properties
			Components of the Stress System
			Equilibrium of the Stress System
			Intensity and Duration of Stress
		Stress System Physiological Stimuli
			Circadian Rhythm
			Gender
			Aging
			Prenatal Stress
			Early-Life Stress
			Maternal Care
			Diet
			Physical Activity
			Temperature
		Stress System Pathological Stimuli
			Immune Response
			Somatic Stressors
			Neuropsychological Factors
			HPA Dysregulation
			Stress-Induced Adrenal Conditions
	Part 2: Environmental Endocrine Disruptors and the HPA Axis
		Plasticizers
			Phthalates
			Bisphenol A
			Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
		Flame Retardants
			Pesticides
			Insecticides
			Herbicides
			Fungicides
		Air Particulate Matter Pollution
		Other Compounds
			Licorice
			Cadmium
			Arsenic
	Conclusion
	References
5 Environmental Impact on the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Ovary Axis
	EDCs and Development of Gonadal Axis
		Sleep Disorders, Behavioral Disturbances, and Steroids As Endocrine Disruptors Affecting Gonadal Axis
			Homeostatic Role for the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis
			Sleep Disorders As a Disruptor of the Secretory Activity of HPG Axis
		Direct Effects of Endocrine Disruptors on Hypothalamus and Pituitary
	EDCs and the Effect on Ovary and Uterus
		Effects on the Ovarian Development and Postnatal Period Including Folliculogenesis and Endometrium
			Bisphenol A
			Phthalates
			Diethylstilbestrol (DES)
		Effects of EDs on the Steroidogenesis
			Bisphenol A
			Phthalates
			Diethylstilbestrol
			Tributyltin
			EDs and Metabolic Changes in Reproductive Disorders
	EDs Actions on Puberty and Menstrual Cycle
		Bisphenol A
			Phthalates
			Pesticides
			Environmental Pollutants
			Estrogens
			Androgens
	Conclusion
	References
6 Environmental Impact on Female Fertility and Pregnancy
	Introduction
	Environmental Factors and Impairment of Female Fertility (Table 2)
		Impairment of Nonassisted Female Fertility
		Impairment of Assisted Female Fertility
	Effect of Environmental Factors on Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Ovarian (HPO) Axis Resulting into Negative Pregnancy Outcomes
		Ectopic Pregnancy
		Pregnancy Losses
		Gestational Diabetes
		Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy
		Preterm Birth
		Intrauterine Growth Restriction
		Small for Gestational Age
		Large for Gestational Age
		Birth Defects
		Transgenerational Epigenetic Effects
	Conclusion
	References
7 The Role of the Environment in Female Reproductive Disorders
	Introduction
	The Ovarian Dysgenesis Syndrome
	Impact of Environmental Factors on Female Reproductive Disorders: Focusing on Endocrine Disruptors
		Irregular Menstrual Cyclicity
		Polycystic Ovary Syndrome
		Endometriosis
		Premature Ovarian Insufficiency
		Fibroids
		Impact of Environmental Factors on Disorders of Puberty in Females: Focusing on Endocrine Disruptors
		Precocious Puberty
	Impact of Environmental Factors on Female Hormone-Related Cancers: Focusing on Endocrine Disruptors
		Breast Cancer
		Endometrial Cancer
		Ovarian Cancer
	Moving Forward: Summary and Future Directions
	References
8 Environmental Impact on the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Testis Axis
	Introduction
	Mechanism of Action of EDCs on Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis
	Bisphenol A
	Phthalates
	Perfluoroalkyl Substances
	Heavy Metals
	Pesticides
	Dioxin and Dioxin-Like Compounds
	Lifestyles
	Temperature
	Radiation
	Conclusions
	References
9 Environmental Impact on Semen Quality and Male Fertility
	Introduction
	Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals
		Bisphenol-A
			In Vitro and Animal Studies
			Human Epidemiological Studies
		Phthalates
			In Vitro and Animal Studies
			Human Epidemiological Studies
		Perfluorochemicals
			In Vitro and Animal Studies
			Human Epidemiological Studies
		Organophosphates
			In Vitro and Animal Studies
			Human Epidemiological Studies
		Polychlorinated Biphenyls
			In Vitro and Animal Studies
			Human Epidemiological Studies
	Other Environmental Pollutants
		Heavy Metals
			Cadmium
			Mercury
			Lead
			Chromium
			Arsenic
		Air Pollution
		Temperature
		Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields
	Conclusions
	References
10 The Role of the Environment in Testicular Dysgenesis Syndrome
	Introduction
	Endocrine Disrupting Compounds: General Considerations
	Estrogen Receptors
	Androgen Receptors
	Endocrine Disrupting Compounds Targeting the Male Reproductive System
		Exposure to Endocrine Disrupting Compounds with Estrogenic Properties
		Exposure to Endocrine Disrupting Compounds with Anti-Androgenic Properties
		Exposure to Endocrine Disrupting Compounds with Mixed Properties
	The Environment-Genes Component in Testicular Dysgenesis Syndrome: Contribution to Testicular Cancer Etiology
	Conclusions
	References
11 Environmental Impact on Sexual Response
	Introduction
	EDCs and Sexual Differentiation
		Physiology of Sexual Differentiation
		The Influence of EDCs on Sexual Differentiation
	EDCs and Sexual Function
		Physiology of Sexual Response
		EDCs and Sexual (Dys)function
	EDCs, Sexual Orientation, and Gender Identity
		Biological Basis of Sexual Orientation
		Biological Basis of Gender Identity
		The Influence of EDCs on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
	Conclusions and Future Directions
	References
12 Environmental Impact on Bone Health
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Bone Metabolism
	Exposure to Light (Photoperiod) and Climate Conditions
	Disorders of Nutrition
	Socioeconomic and Sociocultural Environment
	Air Pollutants
	Endocrine Disruptors
		Bisphenol A
		Alkylphenols
		Diethylstilbestrol
		Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)
		Phthalate Esters
		Dioxins
		Parabens
		Cadmium
	Conclusions
	References
13 Environmental Impact on Immune System
	Introduction
	Effects of EDCs on Immune Cells
		Neutrophils
		Monocytes and Macrophages
		Natural Killers
		Mast Cells and Eosinophils
		Dendritic Cells
		Lymphocytes
	Potential Role of EDCs in Allergic Disease
	Potential Role of EDCs in Autoimmune Disease
	Environmental Circadian Disruption and Inflammation
	Food and Immune System
	The Nutrient-Organism Interface: Epithelial Barrier, Gut-Resident Immune Cells, and Microbiome
	Signaling Effectors in Response to Nutritional Status
	The Effects of Micronutrients on the Immune System
	Nutritional Status and Immune Function
	Microbiome and the Immune System
	Role of Microbiota in Immune Homeostasis
	Innate Immune System-Microbiota Crosstalk
	Adaptive Immune System-Microbiota Crosstalk
	Conclusions
	References
14 Environmental Impact on Metabolism
	Introduction
	Gut Microbiota in Health and Metabolic Diseases
	Obesogens and Microbiota
	Obesogens and Metabolic Effects
	Diabetogens and Microbiota
		T2D and Microbiota
		Low-Grade Inflammation and Gut Permeability
		SCFAs
	Diabetogens and Metabolic Effects
		Statins
		EDCs: The Diabetogen Hypothesis
			Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP)
			BPA
			Arsenic and Phthalates
			EDCs Mixtures
	The EDCs-Microbiota-Metabolism Triad
	Conclusions
	References
15 The Role of the Environment in Neuroendocrine Tumors
	Introduction
	Epidemiology
	Biology of Neuroendocrine Tumors
	Risk Factors for Neuroendocrine Tumors
		Family History of Cancer and Risk of NET Development
		Genetics of Neuroendocrine Tumors
			Mammalian Target of Rapamycin (mTOR) Signaling Pathway
			Notch and Hedgehog Signaling Pathways
			Growth Factors Impact on NET Development
			Disruption of DNA Damage Repair in NET Pathogenesis
			Mutations Associated with NET Pathogenesis
			Epigenetic Landscape of Neuroendocrine Tumors
		Aging
		Gender
		Ethnicity
		Lifestyle
		Obesity
		Nutrition
		Radiation
		The Role of Immune System in NET Pathogenesis and Progression
		Exposure to Endocrine Disruptors
	Conclusion
	References
16 The Role of the Environment in Endocrine Cancers
	Introduction
	Gonadal Cancer
		Ovarian Cancer
		Cervical Cancer
		Endometrial Cancer
		Testicular Cancer
	Adrenal Cancer
	Conclusion
	References
17 The Role of the Environment in Hormone-Related Cancers
	Introduction
	Overview of Risk Factors Linked to Endocrine-Related Cancers
		Chemical Factors Related to Pathogenesis of Endocrine-Related Cancers
			Endocrine Disruptors
			Heavy Metals
			Cigarette Smoking
		Biological Factors Related to Pathogenesis of Endocrine-Related Cancers
			Obesity
			Circadian Disruption
	Breast Cancer
		Basic Facts and Mechanisms Involved in Breast Cancer
		Chemical Factors Related to Pathogenesis of Breast Cancer
			Endocrine Disruptors
				Human Studies
				Animal Studies
				In Vitro Studies
			Heavy Metals
			Cigarette Smoking
			Ethanol
		Biological Factors Related to Pathogenesis of Breast Cancer
			Obesity
			Circadian Disruption
	Endometrial Cancer
		Basic Facts on Endometrial Cancer
		Selected Chemical and Biological Factors Related to Pathogenesis of Endometrial Cancer
			Endocrine Disruptors
			Heavy Metals
			Obesity
	Prostate Cancer
		Basic Facts on Prostate Cancer
		Chemical and Physical Factors Related to the Pathogenesis of Prostate Cancer
			Endocrine Disruptors
				Humans
				Animal Studies
				In Vitro Studies
			Smoking
			Ionizing Radiation
		Biological Factors Related to the Pathogenesis of Prostate Cancer
			Obesity
			Shift Work
	Conclusion
	References
Index