Environmental and Energy Law

Environmental and Energy Law......Page 1
Contents......Page 7
Notes on the Contributors......Page 11
Preface......Page 17
List of Abbreviations......Page 19
PART ONE: INTRODUCTION......Page 27
1.1 OVERVIEW AND AIMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL & ENERGY LAW......Page 29
1.1.2 Readership......Page 30
1.2 THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN SCIENCE AND LAW AND POLICY MAKING......Page 31
1.2.1 The law- and policy-making practice and the influence of science......Page 32
1.2.2 The precautionary principle......Page 34
1.2.3 Law and policy as drivers for innovation......Page 35
1.2.5 Why is environmental law also relevant to engineers and technical scientists?......Page 36
1.3.1 What is environmental law?......Page 38
1.3.2 Environmental law’s relationship with other areas of regulation......Page 40
1.3.3 Sustainable development and the law......Page 41
1.3.4 An overview of international environmental law: history, key principles and themes......Page 42
1.3.5 European Union environmental law......Page 46
1.3.6 UK environmental law......Page 49
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING......Page 56
CASE STUDIES......Page 57
Questions and activities......Page 58
PART TWO: INNOVATION, SUSTAINABILITY AND THE LAW......Page 61
2.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 63
2.2.2 Elements of the notion of sustainable development......Page 64
2.2.3 The legal nature of sustainable development......Page 67
2.3.1 Introduction......Page 68
2.3.2 BAT as a ‘generic term’......Page 69
2.3.3 BAT in HELCOM......Page 71
2.3.4 BAT in OSPAR......Page 74
2.3.5 BAT in the 2010 Directive on industrial emissions (2010/75/EU IED)......Page 75
REFERENCES......Page 81
TREATIES......Page 83
INTERNATIONAL AND EU DOCUMENTS......Page 84
CASE LAW......Page 86
3.1 INTRODUCTION: RATIONALES FOR BUSINESS TO ADDRESS ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL ISSUES......Page 87
3.2 PORTER’S HYPOTHESIS ON THE ENVIRONMENTCOMPETITIVENESS RELATIONSHIP......Page 89
3.3 WHAT TYPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION TO STIMULATE INNOVATION?......Page 91
3.4 ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION AND BUSINESS LOCATION......Page 94
3.5 ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION OR VOLUNTARY ACTION?......Page 96
3.6 CONCLUSION......Page 98
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES......Page 99
4.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 101
4.2 OVERVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL MECHANISMS TO PROMOTE INNOVATION......Page 102
4.2.1 Fossil fuel subsidies......Page 104
4.2.2 Import tariffs......Page 105
4.2.3 Regulatory measures to promote innovation......Page 106
4.2.4 Technology transfer under multilateral environmental agreements......Page 109
4.2.5 Intellectual property issues......Page 111
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES......Page 113
5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 118
5.2.1 EU adaptation policies and strategies......Page 121
5.2.2 International adaptation policies and strategies......Page 123
5.3 ADAPTATION TECHNOLOGIES......Page 127
5.3.1 Technology transfer of adaptation technologies......Page 128
5.3.2 Case study: agricultural technologies......Page 129
5.4 POTENTIAL INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC BARRIERS TO ADAPTATION......Page 133
5.4.2 International trade policies; import tariffs and subsidies......Page 134
5.4.3 Intellectual property rights and trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights......Page 135
5.6 PROPOSALS AND RECOMMENDATIONS......Page 136
5.7 CONCLUSION......Page 137
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES......Page 138
Questions and activities......Page 141
PART THREE: SUSTAINABLE ENERGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE LAW......Page 143
6.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 145
6.1.2 Energy as a key sector for carbon emissions reduction......Page 146
6.1.3 Growth in fossil energy use and supply concerns......Page 147
6.2.1 Origins of EU energy policy and law......Page 148
6.2.2 Recent policy/strategy activity......Page 149
6.2.3 Technology development......Page 150
6.2.4 Energy efficiency......Page 151
6.2.5 Renewables......Page 153
6.3.1 Key UK energy challenges......Page 155
6.3.3 Energy efficiency......Page 157
6.3.4 Renewables......Page 161
REFERENCES......Page 164
7.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 167
7.2.1 The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change......Page 168
7.2.2 The Kyoto Protocol......Page 174
7.2.3 UNFCCC and Kyoto finance mechanisms......Page 177
7.2.4 Beyond Kyoto......Page 179
7.2.5 Alternatives to the UN framework......Page 184
7.2.6 International shipping and aviation......Page 185
7.3 EU CLIMATE CHANGE LAW......Page 186
7.3.1 The EU GHG emission reduction target under the Kyoto Protocol......Page 187
7.3.2 The EU Emissions Trading Directive56......Page 188
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES......Page 196
8.1 INTRODUCTION: OVERVIEW OF UK CLIMATE CHANGE GOALS AND GOVERNANCE......Page 198
8.2 UK CLIMATE CHANGE PROGRAMME......Page 199
8.3.1 The Climate Change Act (2008)......Page 201
8.3.3 Emissions trading – UK initiatives......Page 203
8.3.4 Carbon taxation......Page 205
8.4.1 Horticulture assistance package......Page 211
8.5 TRANSPORT......Page 212
8.6.1 Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006......Page 213
8.6.4 Renewables Obligation......Page 214
8.6.5 Planning and building......Page 215
8.6.8 Environmental Transformation Fund......Page 216
8.6.10 UK regional initiatives......Page 217
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES......Page 218
Questions and activities......Page 219
PART FOUR: EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION OF ENERGY RESOURCES......Page 223
9.1 INTRODUCTION: THE RIGHT TO PERMANENT SOVEREIGNTY OVER NATURAL RESOURCES......Page 225
9.2 INTERNATIONAL LAW AND ENERGY RESOURCES......Page 229
9.3 TYPES OF OWNERSHIP REGIMES IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRIES AND THE LICENSING SYSTEM......Page 230
9.3.1 Private ownership of oil and gas......Page 231
9.3.3 Steward regimes and indigenous peoples’ rights to land......Page 233
9.4.1 Concessions......Page 235
9.4.2 ‘New’ concessions......Page 236
9.4.3 Production sharing agreements......Page 237
9.4.5 Risk service contracts......Page 238
9.5.1 Overview of the law of the sea......Page 239
9.5.2 The legal regime of the continental shelf......Page 241
9.5.3 The deep seabed (the ‘area’)......Page 245
9.5.4 Marine pollution from continental shelf and deep seabed activities......Page 246
9.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 248
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES......Page 249
10.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 251
10.2 BACKGROUND TO MODERN HEALTH AND SAFETY LAW AND REGULATION......Page 253
10.3 THE HEALTH AND SAFETY AT WORK, ETC. ACT 1974......Page 256
10.4 HEALTH AND SAFETY AT WORK IN THE OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY......Page 257
10.5 LIMITATIONS OF GOAL-SETTING AND SAFETY CASES?......Page 259
10.6 THE CORPORATE MANSLAUGHTER AND CORPORATE HOMICIDE ACT 2007......Page 260
10.7 THE HEALTH AND SAFETY (OFFENCES) ACT 2008......Page 262
10.8 POSSIBLE EFFECTS OF THE DEEPWATER HORIZON ACCIDENT ON UK OFFSHORE SAFETY REGULATION......Page 263
10.10 SUMMARY......Page 265
11 Energy Agreements – Force Majeure and Hardship Clauses......Page 266
11.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 267
11.2 STANDARDCONTRACTUALMECHANISMTOADJUSTENERGY CONTRACTS TO EVOLVING CIRCUMSTANCES......Page 269
11.3.1 The predictable and unpredictable circumstances; the controlled and uncontrollable circumstances......Page 270
11.3.3 Notion and conditions......Page 271
11.3.4 Effects......Page 273
11.3.5 Notion and conditions......Page 275
11.4 ASSESSMENT AND PRACTICAL ADVICE......Page 277
11.5 CONCLUSION......Page 278
Questions and activities......Page 279
PART FIVE: CLEAN TECHNOLOGIES AND THE CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM......Page 281
12.1.1 Emergence of carbon capture and storage......Page 283
12.1.2 Overview of carbon capture and storage systems......Page 284
12.2.2 The need for wide-scale deployment......Page 286
12.4 COMPARISON WITH RENEWABLE ENERGIES......Page 288
12.4.1 Biomass with CCS: negative carbon emissions......Page 289
12.5.1 Capture options......Page 290
12.6.1 Transport options......Page 291
12.7.1 Options for storage......Page 292
12.8 CONCLUSIONS......Page 293
REFERENCES......Page 294
13.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 296
13.3 THE ISSUE OF LEAKAGE......Page 297
13.4 THE EU LEGISLATIVE AND REGULATORY ENVIRONMENT FOR CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE......Page 298
13.4.1 The CCS directive......Page 299
13.4.2 Environmental liability directive......Page 302
13.4.3 Emissions trading directive......Page 303
13.5 COMMISSION GUIDANCE DOCUMENT 4 (GD4)......Page 304
13.5.1 EU state aids/competition law......Page 306
13.6.1 Examples from other jurisdictions......Page 307
13.6.2 First mover advantage through regulation......Page 308
13.7 SUMMARY......Page 310
13.8 CONCLUSION......Page 311
13.9 SUMMARY......Page 312
REFERENCES......Page 313
14 The Clean Development Mechanism – Legal and Contractual......Page 314
14.1 INTRODUCTION: AN OVERVIEW OF THE CDM......Page 315
14.2.1 Market breakdown by project sector......Page 316
14.2.2 Market breakdown by host country......Page 319
14.3 THE CDM UNDER THE KYOTO LEGAL FRAMEWORK – SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND ADDITIONALITY......Page 320
14.4.3 Risk characterisation......Page 321
14.4.4 Risk management measures......Page 322
14.5.1 Overview of contract law......Page 323
14.5.2 Principles of contract law......Page 324
14.5.3 General contractual framework in CDM projects......Page 325
14.5.4 CDM Project parties, interests and contractual obligations......Page 327
14.5.5 CDM contract design......Page 328
14.6.1 Some key legal issues in renewable CDM project contracts......Page 329
14.6.2 Standardisation of CDM renewable energy project contracts......Page 330
14.7.1 Introduction......Page 331
14.7.2 EPC contracts – characteristics and typical clauses......Page 332
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES......Page 335
Questions and activities......Page 337
PART SIX: WASTE, WATER, AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL......Page 339
15.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 341
15.2.1 A regional framework for waste management......Page 342
15.2.2 Difficulties with the definition of ‘waste’......Page 344
15.2.3 Contaminated soil......Page 345
15.2.5 Agricultural waste......Page 346
15.2.6 Construction, demolition and excavation waste......Page 347
15.2.7 Movement of waste......Page 350
15.3.1 Landfilling of waste......Page 352
15.3.2 Alternatives to landfill......Page 356
15.3.3 Waste electrical and electronic equipment and the use of hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment......Page 357
15.3.4 Packaging and packaging waste......Page 359
15.3.5 Incineration of waste......Page 361
15.3.6 Outlook for legal developments......Page 365
15.4.1 Waste Strategy for England 2007......Page 366
15.4.2 Landfill allowance trading scheme......Page 367
15.5 CONCLUSION......Page 369
15.6 SUMMARY......Page 370
REFERENCES......Page 371
16.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 373
16.2.2 River basin management planning (RBMP)......Page 374
16.2.3 Programme of measures......Page 375
16.2.4 Monitoring......Page 377
16.3 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE WFD ACROSS THE EU......Page 378
16.4.1 The Groundwater Directive (2006/118/EC)......Page 379
16.4.3 The Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive (91/271/EEC)......Page 382
16.4.6 Sewage Sludge Directive (86/278/EEC)......Page 383
16.7 INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: WORLD CONTEXT......Page 385
REFERENCES......Page 391
17.1 INTRODUCTION: BACKGROUND AND ORIGINS OF THE IPPC DIRECTIVE......Page 394
17.1.1 The implementation of the IPPC directive......Page 395
17.1.3 Effectiveness of the current IPPC system......Page 396
17.2.1 Reasons for the new directive......Page 397
17.2.2 Conflict between IPPC directive and LCP directive......Page 398
17.3 INTRODUCTION TO THE INDUSTRIAL EMISSIONS DIRECTIVE......Page 399
17.3.2 Scope of the industrial emissions directive – range of activities covered......Page 400
17.4.1 Chapter I – common provisions......Page 401
17.4.2 Chapter II – provisions for activities listed in Annex I......Page 404
17.4.6 Chapter VI – special provisions for installations producing titanium dioxide......Page 414
17.5 CONCLUSION: EXPECTED MAIN IMPACTS OF THE INDUSTRIAL EMISSIONS DIRECTIVE......Page 415
17.6.1 UK legislation......Page 416
17.7 RELEVANT EC DIRECTIVES AND REGULATIONS......Page 417
18.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 419
18.2 ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS......Page 420
18.3 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF EU AIR QUALITY LEGISLATION......Page 421
18.3.2 Automobile industry......Page 423
18.4 REVIEW OF AIR QUALITY DIRECTIVE (2008/50/EC)......Page 425
18.5 CASE STUDY SUMMARY......Page 431
18.5.1 The EU Framework Directive on Air Quality and Daughter Directives......Page 432
18.5.2 The Environment Act, Air Quality Standards Regulations and Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland......Page 433
18.5.3 Protection of human health and environmental regulations......Page 435
18.5.4 Clean Air Act 1993......Page 436
18.5.6 Legally defined statutory nuisances......Page 438
18.5.7 Diagnostic solutions in relation to industry best practice......Page 441
REFERENCES......Page 442
19.1.1 Nature and extent of contaminated land......Page 444
19.1.3 Reasons for contaminated land management......Page 445
19.1.4 Sources and nature of contamination......Page 446
19.2 LEGISLATION......Page 447
19.2.1 Part IIA of the environmental protection act 1990......Page 448
19.2.3 Requirements of the planning system......Page 451
19.2.4 Civil action......Page 453
19.3.1 Risk assessment......Page 454
19.3.2 Options appraisal......Page 456
19.3.3 Implementation of the remediation strategy......Page 457
19.3.4 Waste law for contaminated land......Page 458
REFERENCES......Page 459
Questions and activities......Page 460
PART SEVEN: THE REGULATION OF CHEMICALS AND LABORATORY SAFETY......Page 463
20.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 465
20.2 KEY ISSUES......Page 466
20.3.1 International regulation of nanotechnology......Page 467
20.3.3 International institutions – the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)......Page 468
20.4 AN EVALUATION OF REGULATION OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN FOUR NATIONAL REGULATORY FRAMEWORKS......Page 469
20.4.1 United Kingdom......Page 470
20.4.3 Australia/Japan......Page 471
20.5 FINDINGS OF A REVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL APPROACHES TO REGULATION OF NANOTECHNOLOGIES: EUROPE, USA, AUSTRALIA AND JAPAN......Page 472
20.6 IS THERE A NEED FOR A NEW REGULATORY APPROACH FOR NANOTECHNOLOGY – WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM BIOTECHNOLOGY?......Page 473
20.7 EU ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION, THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY AND NANOTECHNOLOGIES......Page 474
20.8.1 What is REACH?......Page 476
20.8.2 Procedure......Page 477
20.8.5 Limitations of REACH in addressing nanomaterials......Page 478
20.8.6 The UK context on chemical regulation......Page 479
20.9 POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS: A PROPOSAL FOR A POSSIBLE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF A REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR NM......Page 480
20.9.1 Option 1: maintaining existing regulations to govern risks posed by nanotechnologies......Page 481
20.9.3 Option 3: nano- and product-specific regulations......Page 482
20.10 RECENT INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS IN NANOTECHNOLOGIES REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS: 2009–2011......Page 484
20.12 CONCLUSIONS......Page 485
20.13 SUMMARY......Page 486
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES......Page 487
21.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 491
21.1.1 Sampling......Page 492
21.2 EU REGULATORY CONTEXT......Page 493
21.3.1 EU Water Framework Directive......Page 495
21.4.2 The Nitrates Directive......Page 500
21.5 BEST PRACTICE......Page 501
21.5.2 Analytical Measurements should be Made to Satisfy an Agreed Requirement......Page 502
21.5.3 Analytical measurements should be made using methods15 and equipment which have been tested to ensure they are fit for purpose......Page 503
21.5.5 There should be a regular and independent assessment of the technical performance of a laboratory......Page 504
21.5.6 Analytical measurements made in one location should be consistent with those made elsewhere......Page 505
21.5.7 Organisations making analytical measurements should have well-defined quality control and quality assurance procedures......Page 507
21.7 SOME ADDITIONAL PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS......Page 508
21.8 CONCLUSIONS......Page 509
21.8.1 Summary......Page 510
21.10 RELATED REFERENCES......Page 511
REFERENCES......Page 512
Questions and activities......Page 513
PART EIGHT: GOVERNANCE, IMPACT ASSESSMENT, COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT IN ENVIRONMENTAL LAW......Page 515
22.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 517
22.2.1 Key features of the planning system......Page 518
22.3.2 The SEA Directive......Page 522
22.4.2 The EIA directive......Page 525
22.4.4 EIA in the UK......Page 526
22.4.5 What information should an ES contain?......Page 528
22.4.6 EIA in practice......Page 529
22.5 CONCLUSIONS......Page 531
REFERENCES......Page 532
23.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 534
23.2 THE AARHUS CONVENTION AS A DRIVING FORCE......Page 535
23.3 THE THREE PILLARS OF THE CONVENTION......Page 536
23.4.2 Access to environmental information......Page 538
23.6 ACCESS TO JUSTICE IN ENVIRONMENTAL MATTERS......Page 540
23.7 THE EU EMISSIONS TRADING SCHEME REGIME: SYNERGIES WITH THE AARHUS CONVENTION......Page 541
23.8 LINKS TO OTHER DIRECTIVES......Page 542
23.10.1 Kiev Protocol on Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers......Page 543
23.11 THE EUROPEAN POLLUTANT RELEASE AND TRANSFER REGISTER (E-PRTR) AND LINKS TO IPPC......Page 545
23.12 DATA REPORTING FORMAT......Page 547
23.15.1 Reporting requirements under the Water Framework Directive (WFD) and International Water-Related Agreements......Page 548
23.15.2 The (Barcelona) Convention on the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution (1976)......Page 549
23.15.4 The Protocol to the Barcelona convention for the protection of the Mediterranean Sea against pollution from land-based sources (1980)......Page 550
23.15.6 The Oslo-Paris (OSPAR) Convention on the protection of the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic (1992)......Page 551
23.15.8 Convention on cooperation for the protection and sustainable use of the River Danube (1994)......Page 552
23.16.1 OECD......Page 554
23.16.2 European Environment Agency......Page 555
23.17 CONCLUSIONS......Page 557
23.17.1 Summary of key issues and learning outcomes......Page 558
REFERENCES......Page 559
24.1 HOW COMPANIES WORK......Page 560
24.2 CORPORATE ENVIRONMENTAL DISCLOSURE IN ENGLAND AND WALES......Page 562
24.3 CORPORATE ENVIRONMENTAL DISCLOSURE UNDER EU LAW......Page 566
24.4 CORPORATE ENVIRONMENTAL DISCLOSURE IN THE UNITED STATES......Page 567
24.5 AND NOW FOR SOMETHING COMPLETELY DIFFERENT: CORPORATE ENVIRONMENTAL DISCLOSURE IN IRAN......Page 570
24.6 ACCESS TO ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION LAW AND ITS UTILITY FOR CORPORATE ENVIRONMENTAL DISCLOSURE......Page 571
24.7 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT......Page 573
24.8 MEASURING THE IMPACT OF THE COMPANY ON THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 575
24.9 ADEQUATE EXTENT OF DISCLOSURE......Page 580
24.10 FIDUCIARY DUTIES AND CORPORATE ENVIRONMENTAL DISCLOSURE IN PRACTICE......Page 582
24.11 CONCLUSION......Page 583
24.13 USEFUL FOLLOW-UP INFORMATION......Page 584
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES......Page 585
25.1 INTRODUCTION: THE ENFORCEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAW......Page 587
25.1.1 Non-compliance procedures under MEAs......Page 588
25.1.2 International civil liability regimes......Page 589
25.1.3 International criminal liability......Page 591
25.2 COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT IN EUROPEAN UNION ENVIRONMENTAL LAW......Page 592
25.2.1 The enforcement powers of the European Commission and member states......Page 593
25.2.2 EU directive on civil liability for environmental damage......Page 594
25.2.3 Enforcement of environmental law through criminal law in the EU......Page 595
25.3.1 Criminal law enforcement......Page 596
25.3.2 Civil enforcement......Page 597
25.3.3 Administrative enforcement......Page 599
25.4 CONCLUSIONS......Page 601
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES......Page 602
Questions and activities......Page 603
PART NINE: CASE STUDIES ON ENVIRONMENTAL LAW IMPLEMENTATION......Page 605
26.2.1 Biomass heating for community housing, Barnsley Metropolitan Council, Barnsley, South Yorkshire, UK1......Page 607
26.3.1 Cellulose Acetate Production3......Page 609
26.4 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT......Page 610
26.5.1 Outokumpu – stainless steel melting and continuous casting5......Page 611
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH STAINLESS STEEL PRODUCTION......Page 612
LEARNING POINTS......Page 615
Questions and activities......Page 616
Index......Page 617