Ecology: evolution, application, integration

Cover......Page 1
Half Title Page......Page 2
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Dedication......Page 6
About the Author......Page 7
Contents in Brief......Page 8
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 18
Part 1: Organisms, the Environment, and Evolution......Page 28
  1.1 What Is Ecology?......Page 30
  1.2 What Important Ideas Will Emerge in Your Study of Ecology?......Page 34
   What Fundamental Themes Will Emerge?......Page 35
   What Methodologies Are Important in the Study of Ecology?......Page 36
 Chapter 2: Adaptation and Evolution......Page 40
   Change Darwin’s Thinking?......Page 41
   How Do We View Darwin’s Theory Today?......Page 43
   How Are Genes Organized in Populations?......Page 44
   How Do We Model Changes in the Gene Pool?......Page 45
  2.3 What Are the Mechanisms of Evolution?......Page 47
   How Does Selection Change Allele Frequencies?......Page 48
   THE HUMAN IMPACT - The Evolution of Resistance in Pathogens and Pests......Page 51
   How Does Genetic Drift Change Allele Frequencies?......Page 52
   What Are the Effects of Gene Flow?......Page 53
   How Does Selection Lead to Adaptive Change?......Page 54
   What Is the Relationship Between Variation and Natural Selection?......Page 55
   How Do We Explain Imperfection?......Page 57
   What Is the Adaptive Significance of Genetic Drift?......Page 59
  Putting It All Together......Page 60
 Chapter 3: Adaptations to the Physical Environment......Page 64
  3.1 How Do Environmental Factors Limit Growth and Survival?......Page 65
   DO THE MATH - Working with Bell Curves......Page 68
   How Does Inactivity Protect the Species?......Page 69
   THE HUMAN IMPACT - Profound Changes to Coral Reefs......Page 70
   What Movement Patterns Are Protective?......Page 71
  3.3 How Do Physiological Adaptations Alter the Organism’s Tolerance Limits?......Page 74
   How Does the Tolerance Limit Vary Within and Between Individuals?......Page 75
   How Do Organisms Adapt to the Thermal Environment?......Page 76
   How Do Organisms Adapt to Water Stress?......Page 80
   THE EVOLUTION CONNECTION - Plant Adaptations to Life on Land......Page 82
   ON THE FRONTLINE - The Effect of Salinity on Photosynthesis......Page 85
  Putting It All Together......Page 86
  4.1 What Determines Species Distributions?......Page 90
   What Determines the Abiotic Conditions in Terrestrial Systems?......Page 91
   DO THE MATH - The Concept of Statistical Significance......Page 92
   How Do Abiotic Conditions Affect Species’ Distributions?......Page 95
   THE EVOLUTION CONNECTION - Historical Effects on Species Distributions......Page 96
   ON THE FRONTLINE - Fire and Grazing in the Prairie Community......Page 98
  4.2 What Are the Fundamental Types of Terrestrial Communities?......Page 99
   THE HUMAN IMPACT - Global Warming and Ecological Communities......Page 103
  BIOME 1: TROPICAL RAINFOREST......Page 105
  BIOME 2: TROPICAL SAVANNA......Page 107
  BIOME 3: DESERT......Page 109
  BIOME 4: MEDITERRANEAN SHRUBLAND......Page 111
  BIOME 5: TEMPERATE GRASSLAND......Page 113
  BIOME 6: TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST......Page 115
  BIOME 7: CONIFER FOREST......Page 117
  BIOME 8: TUNDRA......Page 119
  Putting It All Together......Page 121
 Chapter 5: Freshwater and Marine Communities......Page 124
  5.1 How Is Water Distributed Across the Earth?......Page 125
   What Abiotic Factors and Processes Are Important in Freshwater Systems?......Page 126
   ON THE FRONTLINE - The Relationship Between the Environment and Dispersal in Aquatic Plant Communities......Page 129
   What Abiotic Factors and Processes Are Important in Marine Systems?......Page 130
   DO THE MATH - Linear Regression......Page 132
  5.3 What Kinds of Communities Occur in Freshwater Ecosystems?......Page 133
   THE HUMAN IMPACT - Survival of the Everglades......Page 135
  5.4 What Kinds of Communities Occur in Marine Ecosystems?......Page 136
   THE EVOLUTION CONNECTION - Not All Characteristics Are Adaptive......Page 139
  Putting It All Together......Page 140
 Chapter 6: Behavioral Ecology......Page 144
   What Are the Fundamental Mechanisms of Behavior Interaction?......Page 145
   How Does Selection Differ for Males and Females?......Page 146
   THE EVOLUTION CONNECTION - Measuring the Contributions of Environment and Genetics to Behavior......Page 147
   What Ecological Factors Influence the Mating System?......Page 149
   What Behaviors Are Important in Obtaining Resources?......Page 153
   ON THE FRONTLINE - The Nature of Habitat Selection......Page 154
   How Does the Environment Affect Movement?......Page 155
   DO THE MATH - Using Hardy-Weinberg Analysis to Study Inbreeding......Page 158
   What Are the Components of the Social System?......Page 160
   THE HUMAN IMPACT - Conservation of Wild Populations......Page 162
  Putting It All Together......Page 164
 Chapter 7: The Ecology of Intraspecific Variation......Page 168
   How Does the Environment Vary Across Space?......Page 169
   How Does the Environment Vary in Time?......Page 170
  7.2 What Are the Adaptive Responses to Local Environmental Variation?......Page 171
   How Do Ecotypes Arise?......Page 172
   What Factors Favor Phenotypic Plasticity?......Page 173
   ON THE FRONTLINE - Melanism and Phenotypic Plasticity in Beetles......Page 174
   What Mechanisms Increase Genetic Variation?......Page 175
   THE EVOLUTION CONNECTION - The Evolution of Sex......Page 176
   How Do We Measure Genetic Variation in Populations?......Page 177
   DO THE MATH - Measuring Genetic Variation......Page 179
   THE HUMAN IMPACT - Conservation Genetics in Small Populations......Page 181
  Putting It All Together......Page 182
Part 2: Populations......Page 184
 Chapter 8: Demography......Page 186
   What Defines the Boundary of a Population?......Page 187
   THE EVOLUTION CONNECTION - The Interaction of Evolution and Population Ecology......Page 189
   How Do We Quantify the Number of Individuals in a Population?......Page 190
   How Do We Measure the Spatial Distribution of Individuals in a Population?......Page 191
   What Are the Key Demographic Characteristics of a Population?......Page 194
   ON THE FRONTLINE - Herbivores and Trillium Sex Ratio......Page 199
  8.3 How Do Populations Change in Time and Space?......Page 200
   What Determines the Movement of Individuals Within and Among Populations?......Page 201
   How Do Populations with Discrete Generations Grow?......Page 203
   How Do Populations with Overlapping Generations Grow?......Page 205
   THE HUMAN IMPACT - Human Reproductive Rates......Page 204
   DO THE MATH - Matrix Algebra......Page 207
  Putting It All Together......Page 208
 Chapter 9: Population Regulation......Page 212
   What Determines the Population Growth Rate?......Page 213
   How Do Density-Dependent and Density-Independent Factors Affect Populations?......Page 214
   THE HUMAN IMPACT - Biological Control of Pests......Page 215
   What Is the Relationship Between Density Dependence and Stability?......Page 220
   Can Populations Achieve Stability by Internal Regulatory Processes?......Page 221
  9.3 How Do Regulatory Factors Interact?......Page 222
   ON THE FRONTLINE - Long-Term Studies of Song Sparrow Population Dynamics......Page 224
  9.4 How Do Populations Interact?......Page 225
  Putting It All Together......Page 226
 Chapter 10: Life History Strategies......Page 230
   What Is Optimized in the Evolution of the Life History Strategy?......Page 231
   THE EVOLUTION CONNECTION - Teleology and Evolutionary Strategies......Page 232
  10.2 Why Do Some Species Have Complex Life Cycles?......Page 233
   What Are the Advantages of Metamorphosis?......Page 234
   Why Have Resting Stages?......Page 235
   Why Change Sex?......Page 236
   Can Life Span Evolve?......Page 237
  10.4 What Determines the Optimal Reproductive Pattern?......Page 238
   Is Reproduction Always Maximized?......Page 239
   What Are the Trade-Off s Among Reproductive Strategies?......Page 240
   What Are the Ecological Correlates of Reproductive Trade-Off s?......Page 242
   ON THE FRONTLINE - The Importance of Predation to Clutch Size......Page 243
   THE HUMAN IMPACT - The Effect of Life History on the Risk of Extinction......Page 245
  Putting It All Together......Page 248
Part 3: Communities: Interactions Among Species......Page 252
 Chapter 11: Competition......Page 254
  11.1 What Is Competition?......Page 255
   How Do We Demonstrate That Competition Is Occurring?......Page 256
   What Are the Mechanisms of Interspecific Competition?......Page 258
  11.2 What Determines the Intensity of Competition?......Page 259
   How Do We Quantify the Use of Resources?......Page 260
   What Are the Effects of Disturbance on the Intensity of Competition?......Page 261
   ON THE FRONTLINE - Distinguishing Resource and Nonresource Competition......Page 262
  11.3 What Are the Ecological and Evolutionary Consequences of Competition?......Page 264
   What Is the Immediate Effect of Competition?......Page 265
   What Is the Evolutionary Effect of Competition?......Page 266
   What Ecological Conditions Permit Coexistence?......Page 267
   DO THE MATH - How to Quantify Niche Overlap......Page 268
  Putting It All Together......Page 271
 Chapter 12: Coevolution......Page 276
   How Do Predators and Prey Adapt to One Another?......Page 277
   DO THE MATH - How Long Should a Predator Remain in a Patch?......Page 281
   ON THE FRONTLINE - Eyespots as Deterrents to Predation......Page 286
   How Do Plants Respond to Herbivory?......Page 287
   How Do Parasites and Their Hosts Coevolve?......Page 289
   THE EVOLUTION CONNECTION - The Phylogenetic Relationship of Parasites and Hosts......Page 292
  12.2 What Species Interactions Are Mutually Beneficial?......Page 294
   What Forms Do Mutualisms Take?......Page 295
   THE HUMAN IMPACT - Mutualism and Species Conservation......Page 297
  Putting It All Together......Page 299
 Chapter 13: The Structure of Communities......Page 304
   What Is the Role of the Physical Environment in Community Composition?......Page 305
   What Is the Relative Importance of Random and Deterministic Processes?......Page 306
   DO THE MATH - The Null Hypothesis in Community Structure......Page 307
  13.2 How Does Competition Structure the Community?......Page 310
   THE HUMAN IMPACT - Competition from Invasive Species......Page 311
   How Do Community Structure and Evolutionary History Interact?......Page 314
   THE EVOLUTION CONNECTION - Community Heritability and Structure......Page 315
   What Is the Effect of Spatial Scale?......Page 316
   How Do Coevolutionary Interactions Affect Community Structure?......Page 317
   ON THE FRONTLINE - Niche Shifts After Competitive Release......Page 319
   What Are the Roles of Resources and Disturbance?......Page 318
  Putting It All Together......Page 322
 Chapter 14: Ecological Succession......Page 326
  14.1 What Are the Effects of Disturbance?......Page 327
   How Frequent Is Disturbance?......Page 328
   How Large Are Disturbances?......Page 329
   How Does the Intensity of Disturbance Vary?......Page 330
   How Does the Vegetation Change During Primary Succession?......Page 332
   How Does the Vegetation Change During Secondary Succession?......Page 334
   What Is the Nature of the Final Stage of Succession?......Page 335
   ON THE FRONTLINE - Equilibrium and Climax in Spruce-Fir Forests......Page 338
   DO THE MATH - Markov Chains......Page 340
   THE HUMAN IMPACT - Succession and Conservation Biology......Page 342
   What Plant Characteristics Are Adaptive as Conditions Change?......Page 343
   What Mechanisms Effect Change?......Page 347
   THE EVOLUTION CONNECTION - Pioneer Species......Page 349
   What Are the Direct and Indirect Effects of Consumers?......Page 350
  Putting It All Together......Page 351
Part 4: Communities and Ecosystems......Page 354
 Chapter 15: Species Diversity......Page 356
  15.1 How Do We Measure Species Diversity?......Page 357
   What Are the Spatial Patterns of Species Diversity?......Page 360
   What Are the Ecological Consequences of Differences in Species Diversity?......Page 363
   THE HUMAN IMPACT - The Sixth Mass Extinction......Page 364
   What Determines Species Diversity in Equilibrium Communities?......Page 366
   DO THE MATH - The Equilibrium Number of Species on an Island......Page 367
   THE EVOLUTION CONNECTION - How Species Arise......Page 369
   What Determines Species Diversity in Nonequilibrium Communities?......Page 370
  Putting It All Together......Page 373
 Chapter 16: Energy Flow and Trophic Structure......Page 376
   What Are the Inorganic Sources of Energy?......Page 377
   How Does the Energy of Primary Production Flow Through Consumers?......Page 379
   How Is Primary Production Measured?......Page 382
   What Are the Global Patterns of Primary Production?......Page 383
   THE EVOLUTION CONNECTION - The Evolution of C4 Photosynthesis......Page 386
   How Is Energy Lost from Ecosystems?......Page 388
   DO THE MATH - Allometry......Page 390
   ON THE FRONTLINE - The Length of Food Chains......Page 392
   What Controls Energy Flow?......Page 395
  Putting It All Together......Page 396
 Chapter 17: Biogeochemical Cycles......Page 400
  17.1 What Are the Major Patterns of Nutrient Movement?......Page 401
   How Do Carbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus Cycle in Ecosystems?......Page 402
   DO THE MATH - Variance and Ecosystem Models......Page 405
   THE EVOLUTION CONNECTION - Oxygen and the Origin of Complex Life Forms......Page 406
   What Are the Important Physical Mechanisms of Flux?......Page 407
   What Are the Important Biological Mechanisms of Flux?......Page 408
   THE HUMAN IMPACT - Soil Fertility and Nutrient Cycles......Page 409
   ON THE FRONTLINE - The Nitrogen Paradox in Tropical Forests......Page 411
   What Is the Role of Disturbance?......Page 413
  Putting It All Together......Page 415
Part 5: Large-Scale and Applied Ecology......Page 418
 Chapter 18: Conservation Biology......Page 420
  18.1 What Are the Global Patterns of Species Richness and Extinction?......Page 421
   What Are the Effects of Small Population Size?......Page 423
   THE EVOLUTION CONNECTION - Evolution of the Population Growth Rate......Page 426
   What Role Does Habitat Play in Extinction?......Page 427
   What Anthropogenic Mortality Factors Lead to Extinction?......Page 430
   ON THE FRONTLINE - Effects of the Decline of Whitebark Pine......Page 431
   DO THE MATH - Maximum Sustainable Yield......Page 433
   What Characteristics Put Species at Risk?......Page 435
   What Conservation Strategies Protect Species?......Page 436
   THE HUMAN IMPACT - The Value of Biodiversity......Page 437
  Putting It All Together......Page 440
 Chapter 19: Landscape Ecology......Page 444
   What Are the Components of a Landscape?......Page 445
   What Are the Causes of Landscape Patterns?......Page 446
   THE HUMAN IMPACT - Recovery of the Black-Footed Ferret......Page 447
   What Role Does Technology Play?......Page 448
   THE EVOLUTION CONNECTION - Landscape Genetics......Page 449
   What Are the Key Measures of Landscape Structure?......Page 451
   DO THE MATH - Fractal Geometry......Page 452
  19.3 What Are the Effects of Landscape Scale and Structure?......Page 454
   How Does Landscape Structure Affect Populations and Communities?......Page 455
   ON THE FRONTLINE - Equilibrium and Fire in Ponderosa Pine Forests......Page 456
   How Do Disturbances Vary Spatially?......Page 458
  Putting It All Together......Page 460
 Chapter 20: Human Global Ecology......Page 464
  20.1 What Is the History of the Human Environmental Impact?......Page 465
   What Is Natural?......Page 466
   What Are the Root Causes of the Human Impact?......Page 467
   DO THE MATH - The Binomial Probability......Page 468
   THE EVOLUTION CONNECTION - Genetically Modified Organisms......Page 469
   What Are the Important Global Environmental Threats?......Page 471
   ON THE FRONTLINE - Thermal Acclimation in Corals......Page 474
   What Determines the Spatial Scale of Human Impacts?......Page 477
  20.3 What Ecological Principles Can We Apply to Environmental Problems?......Page 479
  THE HUMAN IMPACT - The Relationship of Humans to the Natural World......Page 480
  Putting It All Together......Page 481
Figure Analysis: Answer Key......Page 484
Glossary......Page 499
References......Page 511
Credits......Page 528
Index......Page 530