Drying Atlas: Drying Kinetics and Quality of Agricultural Products

Cover
DRYING ATLAS
Drying Kinetics and Quality of
Agricultural Products
Copyright
Preface
Biographies
	Dr.-Ing. Dr. h.c. Werner Mühlbauer
	Dr. Joachim Müller
Acknowledgments
Part 1: Production and processing
1.1
Production
	Appropriate cultivars
	Optimum stage of maturity [1–3]
		Immature crops
		Overripe crops
		Fully mature crops
	Production methods
	Pre-treatments
	References
1.2
Drying
	General aspects
	Drying parameters
		Morphological characteristics
		Diffusion path
		Moisture content [6,8–10]
		Thermal conductivity [6, 11–16]
		Specific heat capacity [6, 11–17]
		Density [11, 12, 17]
		Thermal diffusivity [11–13, 17]
	Drying methods
		Sun drying
			In-field drying [18, 19]
			On-farm sun drying [20]
		Solar drying [5, 21–29]
			Solar tunnel dryer [26, 27]
			Solar greenhouse dryer [5, 28]
			Solar processing center [29]
		Low-temperature drying [6, 8, 30–32]
		High-temperature drying [6, 8, 33]
			Batch dryers
				Flat-bed dryer [6, 8]
				Tray dryer [34, 35]
				Recirculating batch dryer [6, 8]
			Continuous flow dryer [6, 8]
				Cross-flow dryer [6, 8, 36]
				Mixed-flow dryer [6, 36, 37]
				Multi-belt dryer [33, 38–42]
				Tunnel dryer [40, 43]
				Drum dryer [7, 9, 40, 44–47]
	References
1.3
Storage and packaging
	Storage conditions [6–12]
	Storage methods
		Bag storage [23–26]
			Advantages
			Disadvantages
		Bulk storage [19, 27–30]
			Advantages
			Disadvantages
	Packaging [34–36]
	References
1.4
Quality
	General aspects
	Utilization of dried products
	Quality standards
		Multilateral standard setting organizations
		Supranational standard setting organizations
		National standard setting organizations (exemplarily)
		Private industry and trade standards
	Drying relevant parameters
	Chemical composition
	Important ingredients
	References
Part 2: Drying and quality kinetics
2.1
Drying kinetics
	Optimization strategies
		Field testing
		Simulation
	Standardized drying method [1, 8–10]
	Thin-layer laboratory dryer
	Thin-layer drying curves [1, 9, 10]
	Thin layer drying models [1, 8, 11–14]
		Lewis/Newton model
		Page model
		Henderson/Pabis model
		Two-term model
		Logarithmic model
		Midilli model
		Thomson model
		Wang and Singh model
		Diamante et al. model
	References
2.2
Quality kinetics
	Impact of drying on quality
	Optimization strategy [1]
	Standardized procedure
	Reaction kinetics [12–16]
	References
Part 3: Cereals
3.1
Barley ( Hordeum vulgare L.)
	Morphological characteristics [1–3] ( Fig. 3.1.1, Table 3.1.1)
	Production
		Optimum stage of maturity [9]
		Production method [10]
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 3.1.2)
		Drying methods [7]
			High-temperature drying
	Storage
		Storage conditions [7] ( Fig. 3.1.2)
		Storage facilities [13, 14]
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [15] ( Fig. 3.1.3)
		Quality standards ( Table 3.1.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 3.1.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [24, 25] ( Figs. 3.1.4–3.1.6)
		Influence of relative humidity [24, 25] ( Figs. 3.1.7 and 3.1.8)
		Influence of air velocity [24, 25] ( Figs. 3.1.9 and 3.1.10)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of the temperature [24] ( Fig. 3.1.11)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
3.2
Maize ( Zea mays L.)
	Morphological characteristics [1–4] ( Figs. 3.2.1 and 3.2.2, Table 3.2.1)
	Production
		Optimum stage of maturity [8]
		Production methods [9]
			Seed maize
			Feed maize
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 3.2.2)
		Drying methods [6, 7, 10]
			Maize cob drying
			Maize kernel drying
	Storage
		Storage conditions [6] ( Figs. 3.2.3 and 3.2.4)
		Storage facilities [10, 12]
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [5] ( Figs. 3.2.5 and 3.2.6)
		Quality standards ( Table 3.2.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 3.2.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Drying of maize kernels
			Influence of temperature [6] ( Figs. 3.2.7–3.2.9)
			Influence of relative humidity [6] ( Fig. 3.2.10)
			Influence of air velocity [6] ( Fig. 3.2.11)
			Influence of initial moisture content [6] ( Fig. 3.2.12)
		Drying of maize cobs
			Influence of temperature [19] ( Fig. 3.2.13)
	Quality kinetics
		Seed maize
			Influence of temperature [20] ( Fig. 3.2.14)
			Influence of initial moisture content [20] ( Fig. 3.2.15)
		Feed maize
			Influence of temperature [6, 21] ( Figs. 3.2.16–3.2.19)
			Influence of initial moisture content ( Fig. 3.2.20)
		Maize for dry milling
			Influence of temperature [22] ( Figs. 3.2.21–3.2.23)
		Maize for wet milling
			Influence of temperature [23] ( Figs. 3.2.24 and 3.2.25)
	Recommendations
		Production of maize cobs
			Major quality parameter
			Production and processing
		Production of maize kernels
			Major quality parameters
			Production and processing
	References
3.3
Oat ( Avena sativa L.)
	Morphological characteristics [1–4] ( Fig. 3.3.1 and Table 3.3.1)
	Production
		Optimum stage of maturity
		Production method [7, 8]
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 3.3.2)
		Drying methods [5]
			Low-temperature in-storage drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage [5]
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 3.3.2)
		Storage facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [10] ( Fig. 3.3.3)
		Quality standards ( Table 3.3.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 3.3.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [17] ( Figs. 3.3.4–3.3.6)
		Influence of relative humidity [17] ( Figs. 3.3.7 and 3.3.8)
		Influence of air velocity [17] ( Figs. 3.3.9 and 3.3.10)
	Quality kinetics
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
3.4
Rice ( Oryza sativa L.)
	Morphological characteristics [1–3] ( Fig. 3.3.1 and Table 3.3.1)
	Production
		Optimum stage of maturity
			General requirements
			Traditional cultivars
			High-yielding cultivars
		Production methods [6–9]
			Manual production
			Mechanized production
		Processing of paddy rice
			Milling [10, 11]
				Objectives
				Method
			Parboiling [11, 12]
				Objectives
				Method
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 3.3.2)
		Drying methods [15–18]
			Sun drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage
		Storage conditions ( Figs. 3.3.2 and 3.3.3)
		Storage facilities
			Storage in bags [20, 21]
			Storage in bulk [11, 22]
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [5, 23] ( Figs. 3.3.4–3.3.6)
		Quality standards ( Table 3.3.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 3.3.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [28] ( Figs. 3.3.7–3.3.9)
		Influence of initial moisture content [28] ( Fig. 3.3.10)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature [28] ( Fig. 3.3.11)
		Influence of final moisture content [28] ( Fig. 3.3.12)
		Influence of initial and final moisture content [28] ( Fig. 3.3.13)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
3.5
Rye ( Secale cereale L.)
	Morphological characteristics [1, 2] ( Fig. 3.5.1 and Table 3.5.1)
	Production
		Optimum stage of maturity
		Production method [5]
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 3.5.2)
		Drying methods [4]
			Low-temperature in-storage drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage [6]
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 3.5.2)
		Storage facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [8, 9] ( Fig. 3.5.3)
		Quality standards ( Table 3.5.3)
		Drying relevant parameters [4]
		Chemical composition ( Table 3.5.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [4, 17] ( Figs. 3.5.4–3.5.9)
		Influence of relative humidity [17] ( Figs. 3.5.10 and 3.5.11)
		Influence of air velocity [17] ( Figs. 3.5.12 and 3.5.13)
		Influence of initial moisture content [17] ( Fig. 3.5.14)
	Quality kinetics
		Seed rye
			Influence of temperature [17] ( Figs. 3.5.15 and 3.5.16)
			Influence of the product temperature [17] ( Figs. 3.5.17 and 3.5.18)
		Bread rye
			Influence of temperature [17] ( Figs. 3.5.19–3.5.22)
			Influence of product temperature [17] ( Figs. 3.5.23 and 3.5.24)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
3.6
Wheat ( Triticum L.)
	Morphological characteristics [1–5] ( Fig. 3.6.1 and Table 3.6.1)
	Production
		Optimum stage of maturity [8]
		Production method [9]
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 3.6.2)
		Drying methods [6, 7]
			Low-temperature in-storage drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 3.6.2)
		Storage facilities [12, 13]
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [14, 15]
			Soft wheat ( Fig. 3.6.3)
			Hard wheat (durum wheat)
		Quality standards ( Table 3.6.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 3.6.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [6, 23] ( Figs. 3.6.4–3.6.6)
		Influence of relative humidity [6, 23] ( Fig. 3.6.7)
		Influence of air velocity [6] ( Fig. 3.6.8)
		Influence of initial moisture content [6, 23] ( Fig. 3.6.9)
	Quality kinetics
		Seed wheat
			Influence of temperature [6, 24] ( Fig. 3.6.10)
			Influence of initial moisture content [6, 24] ( Figs. 3.6.11 and 3.6.12)
		Bread wheat
			Influence of temperature [6, 24] ( Figs. 3.6.13–3.6.16)
			Influence of initial moisture content [6, 24] ( Fig. 3.6.17)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
Part 4: Root crops
4.1
Cassava ( Manihot esculenta Crantz)
	Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 4.1.1 and 4.1.2, Table 4.1.1)
	Production
		Optimum stage of maturity
		Production methods
			Food (gari) [4]
			Animal feed (tapioca) [5]
			Starch production [6]
		Pre-treatments
			Mechanical pre-treatment [1]
				Objectives
				Methods
			Thermal pre-treatment [6]
				Objectives
				Methods
			Chemical pre-treatment
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 4.1.2)
		Drying methods [8]
			Sun drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 4.1.3)
		Storage facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [10, 11] ( Figs. 4.1.4–4.1.6)
		Quality standards ( Table 4.1.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 4.1.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [19] ( Figs. 4.1.7 and 4.1.8)
		Influence of relative humidity [19] ( Fig. 4.1.9)
		Influence of air velocity [19] ( Figs. 4.1.10 and 4.1.11)
		Influence of mechanical pre-treatment [19] ( Fig. 4.1.12)
		Influence of slice thickness [19] ( Fig. 4.1.13 and 4.1.14)
		Influence of thermal pre-treatment [19] ( Fig. 4.1.15)
		Comparison of drying modes [19]
			Influence of temperature
				Through-flow drying ( Fig. 4.1.16)
				Over-flow drying ( Figs. 4.1.17 and 4.1.18)
			Influence of air velocity [19]
				Through-flow drying ( Fig. 4.1.19)
				Over-flow drying ( Figs. 4.1.20 and 4.1.21)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature [19] ( Figs. 4.1.22–4.1.26)
		Influence of air velocity [19] ( Fig. 4.1.27)
		Influence of thermal pre-treatment [19] ( Fig. 4.1.28)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
4.2
Potato ( Solanum tuberosum L.)
	Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 4.2.1 and 4.2.2, Table 4.2.1)
	Production
		Appropriate cultivars [7]
		Optimum stage of maturity [8]
		Production method [4, 9]
		Pre-treatments
			Mechanical pre-treatment
				Objectives
				Methods
			Thermal pre-treatment [10, 11]
				Objectives
				Methods
			Chemical pre-treatments [12]
				Objectives
				Methods
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 4.2.2)
		Drying methods [7, 12, 15]
			Sun drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage [16]
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 4.2.3)
		Storage facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [7, 18] ( Fig. 4.2.4)
		Quality standards ( Table 4.2.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 4.2.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [21] ( Figs. 4.2.5 and 4.2.6)
		Influence of air velocity [21] ( Figs. 4.2.7 and 4.2.8)
		Influence of slice thickness [21] ( Figs. 4.2.9 and 4.2.10)
		Influence of pre-treatment [21] ( Figs. 4.2.11 and 4.2.12)
		Influence of cultivar [21] ( Fig. 4.2.13)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature [22] ( Figs. 4.2.14 and 4.2.15)
		Influence of relative humidity [22] ( Figs. 4.2.16 and 4.2.17)
		Influence of slice thickness [21] ( Figs. 4.2.18–4.2.20)
		Influence of shape [21] ( Fig. 4.2.21)
		Influence of pre-treatment [21] ( Figs. 4.2.22 and 4.2.23)
		Influence of cultivar [21] ( Figs. 4.2.24–4.2.26)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
Part 5: Oil crops
5.1
Coconut ( Cocos nucifera L.)
	Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 5.1.1 and 5.1.2, Table 5.1.1)
	Production
		Optimum stage of maturity [3]
		Production methods [2, 4]
			Production of coconut halves
			Production of copra pieces
		Pre-treatment
			Osmotic dehydration [5]
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 5.1.2)
		Drying methods [6, 7, 9–11]
			Sun drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 5.1.3)
		Storage facilities [12]
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [2] ( Figs. 5.1.4–5.1.6)
		Quality standards ( Table 5.1.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 5.1.4)
		Important ingredients
		Drying kinetics
			Influence of temperature [6] ( Figs. 5.1.7–5.1.9)
			Influence of relative humidity [6] ( Figs. 5.1.10 and 5.1.11)
			Influence of air velocity [6] ( Figs. 5.1.12 and 5.1.13)
			Influence of nut orientation [6] ( Fig. 5.1.14)
			Influence of mechanical pre-treatment and orientation on the drying time [6]
			Influence of endosperm size and shape [6] ( Fig. 5.1.15)
			Influence of the Shell [6] ( Fig. 5.1.16)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature [6] ( Figs. 5.1.17–5.1.21)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
5.2
Peanut ( Arachis hypogaea L.)
	Morphological characteristics [1] ( Figs. 5.2.1 and 5.2.2, Table 5.2.1)
	Production [4]
		Optimum stage of maturity
		Production methods
			Manual production
			Mechanized production
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 5.2.2)
		Drying methods [5]
			Sun drying
			Low-temperature in-storage drying
			High-temperature drying of pods
	Storage [9]
		Storage conditions ( Figs. 5.2.3 and 5.2.4)
		Storage methods
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [9] ( Figs. 5.2.5 and 5.2.6)
		Quality standards ( Table 5.2.3)
		Drying relevant parameter
		Chemical composition ( Table 5.2.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Drying of kernels
			Influence of temperature [13] ( Fig. 5.2.7)
			Influence of relative humidity [13] ( Fig. 5.2.8)
			Influence of air velocity [13] ( Fig. 5.2.9)
		Drying of kernel and hull [14] ( Fig. 5.2.10)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature [15] ( Fig. 5.2.11)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
5.3
Rapeseed ( Brassica napus var. napus)
	Morphological characteristics [1] ( Figs. 5.3.1 and 5.3.2, Table 5.3.1)
	Production [3, 4]
		Optimum stage of maturity
		Production method
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 5.3.2)
		Drying methods [9, 10]
			Low-temperature in-storage drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage [10]
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 5.3.3)
		Storage facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [4, 5] ( Fig. 5.3.4)
		Quality standards ( Table 5.3.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 5.3.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature ( Figs. 5.3.5–5.3.8)
		Influence of relative humidity [19] ( Figs. 5.3.9 and 5.3.10)
		Influence of initial moisture content [18] ( Fig. 5.3.11)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature [20] ( Fig. 5.3.12)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
5.4
Soybean ( Glycine max (L.) Merr.)
	Morphological characteristics [1, 2] ( Figs. 5.4.1 and 5.4.2, Table 5.4.1)
	Production [2]
		Optimum stage of maturity
		Production method
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 5.4.2)
		Drying methods [9]
			Sun drying
			Low-temperature in-storage drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage [10–13] ( Fig. 5.4.3)
		Storage conditions
		Storage facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [15, 16] ( Fig. 5.4.4)
		Quality standards ( Table 5.4.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 5.4.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [20] ( Figs. 5.4.5–5.4.7)
		Influence of the relative humidity [20] ( Fig. 5.4.7)
		Influence of initial moisture content [20] ( Fig. 5.4.8)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of relative humidity [21] ( Fig. 5.4.9)
		Influence of initial moisture content [21] ( Figs. 5.4.10 and 5.4.11)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Cultivation and processing
	References
5.5
Sunflower ( Helianthus annuus L.)
	Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 5.5.1 and 5.5.2, Table 5.5.1)
	Production [4–7]
		Optimum stage of maturity
		Production methods
			Manual production
			Mechanized production
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 5.5.2)
		Drying methods [6, 10]
			Sun drying
			High-temperature dryings
	Storage [6, 7, 11]
		Storage conditions ( Figs. 5.5.3 and 5.5.4)
		Storage facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [4] ( Figs. 5.5.5 and 5.5.6)
		Quality standards ( Table 5.5.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 5.5.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [12] ( Figs. 5.5.7 and 5.5.8)
		Influence of relative humidity [12] ( Figs. 5.5.9 and 5.5.10)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature ( Figs. 5.5.11 and 5.5.12)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
Part 6: Vegetables
6.1
Carrot ( Daucus carota)
	Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 6.1.1 and 6.1.2, Table 6.1.1)
	Production
		Appropriate properties [2]
			Selection criteria
		Optimum stage of maturity [3]
		Production method [4]
		Pre-treatments [5]
			Objectives
			Mechanical pre-treatment
			Thermal pre-treatment [5–8]
			Chemical pre-treatments [9, 10]
			Osmotic dehydration [11]
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 6.1.2)
		Drying methods [5, 8]
			High-temperature drying
	Storage
		Storage conditions [7, 13] ( Fig. 6.1.3)
		Storage/Packaging facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [2] ( Figs. 6.1.4 and 6.1.5)
		Quality standards ( Table 6.1.3)
		Drying relevant parameter
		Chemical composition ( Table 6.1.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature ( Figs. 6.1.6–6.1.8)
		Influence of air velocity [17] ( Fig. 6.1.9)
		Influence of shape [17] ( Fig. 6.1.10)
		Influence of pre-treatments [17] ( Fig. 6.1.11)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature ( Figs. 6.1.12–6.1.16)
		Influence of relative humidity [19] ( Figs. 6.1.17 and 6.1.18)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
6.2
Paprika ( Capsicum annuum, C. frutescens)
	Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 6.2.1 and 6.2.2, Table 6.2.1)
	Production
		Optimum stage of maturity [2]
		Production method [3]
		Pre-treatments [4, 5]
			Objectives
			Mechanical pre-treatment
			Thermal pre-treatment [5, 6]
			Chemical pre-treatment [7, 8]
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 6.2.2)
		Drying methods [10, 11]
			Sun drying
			Solar drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage
		Storage conditions [12] ( Figs. 6.2.3–6.2.6)
			Powder—Flakes
			Halved Pods—Stripes—Slices
		Storage facilities [10, 11]
			Powder—Flakes
			Halved Pods—Stripes—Slices
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [3] ( Figs. 6.2.7 and 6.2.8)
		Quality standards ( Table 6.2.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 6.2.4)
			Pungent components
			Carotenoids [17]: 0.1–0.8%
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [18] ( Figs. 6.2.9 and 6.2.10)
		Influence of the shape [18] ( Fig. 6.2.11)
		Influence of slice width [18] ( Fig. 6.2.12)
		Comparison of thermal and chemical pre-treatments [18] ( Fig. 6.2.13)
		Influence of the chemical pre-treatment [18] ( Fig. 6.2.14)
		Influence of Cultivar [18] ( Fig. 6.2.15)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature [18] ( Figs. 6.2.16 and 6.2.17)
		Influence of temperature on retention [19] ( Figs. 6.2.18 and 6.2.19)
		Influence of thermal and chemical pre-treatments [18] ( Fig. 6.2.20)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
6.3
Tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum L.)
	Morphological characteristics [1] ( Figs. 6.3.1 and 6.3.2, Table 6.3.1)
	Production
		Appropriate properties [4]
		Optimum stage of maturity [5, 6]
		Production methods [3]
		Pre-treatments
			Objectives
			Ripening [1, 6]
			Mechanical pre-treatment
			Thermal pre-treatments [7]
			Chemical pre-treatments [8, 9]
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 6.3.2)
		Drying methods [4, 12]
			Sun drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage
		Storage conditions [13]  ( Fig. 6.3.3)
		Storage facilities
			Halved or sliced tomato
			Tomato powder [7]
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [3] ( Fig. 6.3.4)
		Quality standards ( Table 6.3.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 6.3.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Through-flow drying
			Influence of temperature [16] ( Figs. 6.3.5–6.3.7)
			Influence of air velocity [16] ( Figs. 6.3.8 and 6.3.9)
			Influence of mechanical treatment [16] ( Fig. 6.3.10)
			Influence of maturity stage [16] ( Fig. 6.3.11)
		Over-flow drying
			Influence of temperature [4] ( Figs. 6.3.12–6.3.14)
			Influence of relative humidity [4] ( Figs. 6.3.15 and 6.3.16)
			Influence of air velocity [4] ( Figs. 6.3.17 and 6.3.18)
			Influence of mechanical treatment [4] ( Fig. 6.3.19)
			Influence of cultivar [4] ( Figs. 6.3.20 and 6.3.21)
		Comparison through-flow and over-flow drying [4]
			Influence of temperature [4] ( Fig. 6.3.22)
		Influence of relative humidity [4] ( Fig. 6.3.23)
			Influence of air velocity [4] ( Fig. 6.3.24)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature [4] ( Figs. 6.3.25 and 6.3.26)
		Influence of relative humidity [4] ( Fig. 6.3.27)
		Influence of air velocity [4] ( Fig. 6.3.28)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
Part 7: Spices
7.1
Chili ( Capsicum annuum L.)
	Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 7.1.1 and 7.1.2, Table 7.1.1)
	Production
		Optimum stage of maturity [3, 4]
		Production method
		Pre-treatments [3, 5, 6]
			Objectives
			Mechanical pre-treatment
			Thermal pre-treatment [7]
			Chemical pre-treatments [8]
			Osmotic treatments [9]
	Drying
		Drying properties ( Table 7.1.2)
		Drying methods
			Sun drying
			Solar drying [12]
			High-temperature drying [13, 14]
	Storage
		Storage conditions [14, 15] ( Figs. 7.1.3–7.1.5)
		Storage/Packaging facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [1] ( Figs. 7.1.6 and 7.1.7)
		Quality standards ( Table 7.1.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 7.1.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [22] ( Figs. 7.1.8–7.1.10)
		Influence of the size [22] ( Fig. 7.1.11)
		Influence of mechanical pre-treatment [23] ( Fig. 7.1.12)
		Influence of chemical pre-treatment [23] ( Fig. 7.1.13)
		Influence of cultivar [23] ( Fig. 7.1.14)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of drying air temperature ( Figs. 7.1.15–7.1.20)
		Green chili pods [23]
			Influence of pre-treatment ( Figs. 7.1.21–7.1.23)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters red chilis
			Spice
			Medicine
		Production and processing
	References
7.2
Garlic ( Allium sativum L.)
	Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 7.2.1 and 7.2.2, Table 7.2.1)
	Production [3–6]
		Appropriate properties
		Optimum stage of maturity [7]
		Production method [7]
		Pre-treatments
			Objectives
			Mechanical pre-treatment
			Thermal pre-treatment [8]
			Chemical pre-treatments [9]
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 7.2.2)
		Drying methods [12]
			Sun drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage [13]
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 7.2.3)
		Storage facilities [12]
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [1, 2] ( Fig. 7.2.4)
		Quality standards ( Table 7.2.3)
		Drying relevant parameter ( Table 7.2.4)
		Chemical composition
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Drying of garlic cloves [19] ( Figs. 7.2.5–7.2.7)
		Drying of garlic slices
			Influence of temperature [20] ( Fig. 7.2.8)
			Influence of relative humidity [20] ( Fig. 7.2.9)
			Influence of slice thickness [21] ( Fig. 7.2.10)
	Quality kinetics
		Garlic cloves [19]
			Influence of temperature ( Figs. 7.2.11 and 7.2.12)
		Garlic slices
			Influence of temperature [22] ( Fig. 7.2.13)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
7.3
Onion ( Allium cepa L.)
	Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 7.3.1–7.3.3, Table 7.3.1)
	Production
		Appropriate properties [1–3]
		Optimum stage of maturity [3]
		Production method [3]
		Post-ripening process
		Pre-treatment
			Objectives
			Mechanical pre-treatments
			Thermal pre-treatments [4]
			Chemical pre-treatment [5, 6]
			Osmotic pre-treatment [7]
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 7.3.2)
		Drying methods [2, 9]
			Sun drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage [10]
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 7.3.4)
		Storage facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products ( Fig. 7.3.5)
		Quality standards ( Table 7.3.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 7.3.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [14] ( Figs. 7.3.6–7.3.8)
		Influence of relative humidity [14] ( Figs. 7.3.9 and 7.3.10)
		Influence of air velocity [14] ( Figs. 7.3.11 and 7.3.12)
		Influence of slice thickness [14] ( Figs. 7.3.13 and 7.3.14)
		Influence of cultivar [14] ( Fig. 7.3.15)
		Influence of drying mode [14] ( Figs. 7.3.16–7.3.18)
	Quality kinetics [14, 15]
		Influence of temperature ( Figs. 7.3.19–7.3.23)
		Influence of relative humidity [14, 15] ( Fig. 7.3.24)
		Influence of air velocity [14] ( Fig. 7.3.25)
		Influence of slice thickness [14] ( Figs. 7.3.26–7.3.28)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
Part 8: Stimulants
8.1
Cocoa ( Theobroma cacao L.)
	Morphological characteristics [1] ( Figs. 8.1.1–8.1.3 and Table 8.1.1)
	Production
		Optimum stage of maturity
		Production method [4]
		Fermentation [5–7]
			Objectives
			Anaerobe fermentation
			Aerobe fermentation
			Fermentation methods
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 8.1.2)
		Drying methods
			Sun drying [4, 7, 8]
			Solar drying [7–9]
			High-temperature drying [6, 8]
	Storage [10]
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 8.1.4)
		Storage facilities [12]
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [4] ( Fig. 8.1.5)
		Quality standards ( Table 8.1.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
			Sun drying
			High-temperature drying
		Chemical composition ( Table 8.1.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [8] ( Figs. 8.1.6 and 8.1.7)
		Influence of relative humidity [8] ( Fig. 8.1.8)
		Influence of air velocity [8] ( Figs. 8.1.9 and 8.1.10)
		Influence of pH-value [8] ( Fig. 8.1.11)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of the temperature [16] ( Figs. 8.1.12 and 8.1.13)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
8.2
Coffee (Coffea L., Rubiaceae)
	Morphological characteristics (Figs. 8.2.1–8.2.3 and Table 8.2.1)
	Production
		Optimum stage of maturity [7]
		Production methods
			Harvesting methods [1]
			Dry processing [1, 8, 9]
			Wet processing [1, 8, 9]
	Drying
		Drying parameters (Table 8.2.2)
		Drying methods [1, 8]
			Sun drying cherries
			High-temperature drying beans
	Storage [1, 12, 13]
		Storage conditions (Figs. 8.2.4 and 8.2.5)
		Storage facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [1] (Figs. 8.2.6–8.2.8)
		Quality standards (Table 8.2.3)
		Organoleptic characteristics
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition (Table 8.2.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Drying of coffee cherries
			Influence of temperature [20] (Figs. 8.2.9 and 8.2.10)
			Influence of air velocity [20] (Fig. 8.2.11)
		Drying of coffee beans
			Influence of temperature [20] (Figs. 8.2.12 and 8.2.13)
			Influence of relative humidity [20] (Figs. 8.2.14 and 8.2.15)
			Influence of air velocity [20] (Figs. 8.2.16 and 8.2.17)
		Comparison dry and wet processing [20] (Fig. 8.2.18)
	Quality kinetics
		Dry processing
			Influence of temperature [20] (Figs. 8.2.19 and 8.2.20)
		Wet processing
			Influence of temperature (Figs. 8.2.21–8.2.23)
		Comparison dry and wet processing [20] (Figs. 8.2.24–8.2.27)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
Part 9: Fruits
9.1
Apple (Malus domestica Borkh.)
	Morphological characteristics (Figs. 9.1.1 and 9.1.2, Table 9.1.1)
	Production
		Appropriate cultivars
			Selection criteria
			Sweet varieties
			Sour varieties
		Optimum stage of maturity [3, 4]
		Production methods
		Pre-storage [5]
			Objectives
			Cold storage
			Controlled atmosphere storage
		Pre-treatments [6]
			Objectives
			Mechanical pre-treatment
			Thermal pre-treatments
			Chemical pre-treatments
			Osmotic dehydration [7]
	Drying
		Drying parameters (Table 9.1.2)
		Drying methods [8]
			High-temperature drying
	Storage
		Storage conditions [10, 11] (Fig. 9.1.3)
		Storage facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [1] (Figs. 9.1.4–9.1.7)
		Quality standard (Table 9.1.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition (Table 9.1.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [15] (Figs. 9.1.8 and 9.1.9)
		Influence of relative humidity [16] (Figs. 9.1.10 and 9.1.11)
		Influence of air velocity [15] (Figs. 9.1.12 and 9.1.13)
		Influence of slice thickness [15] (Figs. 9.1.14 and 9.1.15)
		Influence of cultivar [15] (Fig. 9.1.16)
		Influence of chemical pre-treatment [15] (Fig. 9.1.17)
	Quality kinetics (Fig. 9.1.18)
		Influence of temperature (Figs. 9.1.19–9.1.22)
		Influence of relative humidity (Figs. 9.1.23 and 9.1.24)
		Influence of air velocity [15] (Fig. 9.1.25)
		Influence of slice thickness [15] (Fig. 9.1.26)
		Influence of chemical pre-treatment [15] (Fig. 9.1.27)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
9.2
Apricot ( Prunus armeniaca L.)
	Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 9.2.1 and 9.2.2, Table 9.2.1)
	Production
		Appropriate cultivars
			Selection criteria
			Cultivars [5]
		Optimum stage of maturity [1, 5, 6]
		Production methods [7]
			Whole fruits
			Halved fruits
		Pre-treatments [1, 2, 7–9]
			Objectives
			Mechanical pre-treatments
			Chemical pre-treatments
				Gaseous sulfuring [7]
				Liquid sulfuring [9, 10]
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 9.2.2)
		Drying methods [2]
			Sun drying
			Solar drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage
		Storage conditions [13] ( Fig. 9.2.3)
		Storage facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [2] ( Figs. 9.2.4–9.2.6)
		Quality standards ( Table 9.2.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 9.2.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [2] ( Figs. 9.2.7 and 9.2.8)
		Influence of relative humidity [2] ( Figs. 9.2.9 and 9.2.10)
		Influence of air velocity [2] ( Figs. 9.2.11 and 9.2.12)
		Influence of fruit size [2] ( Figs. 9.2.13 and 9.2.14)
		Influence of cultivar [2] ( Fig. 9.2.15)
		Influence of chemical pre-treatment [2] ( Fig. 9.2.16)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature [2] ( Figs. 9.2.17 and 9.2.18)
		Influence of relative humidity [2] ( Figs. 9.2.19 and 9.2.20)
		Influence of sulfuring method [19] ( Fig. 9.2.21)
		Influence of cultivar on reconstitution kinetics [2] ( Fig. 9.2.22)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
9.3
Banana ( Musa × paradisiaca)
	Morphological characteristics [1] ( Figs. 9.3.1 and 9.3.2, Table 9.3.1)
	Production
		Appropriate cultivars
			General selection criteria
			Production of whole fruits
			Production of slices
		Cultivars for banana drying
			Production of whole fruits
			Production of slices
		Production methods
			Dried whole fruits [3]
			Dried slices [4]
		Ripening [5, 6]
			Optimum ripening stage [7]
			Natural ripening
			Ripening with accelerators
		Pre-treatments
			Drying of whole fruits
				Objectives
				Mechanical pre-treatment
			Fermentation [3]
				Objectives
				Method
		Drying of slices
			Objectives
			Mechanical pre-treatments
			Chemical pre-treatments [8, 9]
			Osmotic treatment [10]
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 9.3.2)
		Drying methods [12]
			Drying of whole fruits
				Sun drying
				Solar drying [3, 13]
				High-temperature drying [14]
		Drying of slices [4]
			High-temperature drying
	Storage
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 9.3.3)
		Storage—Packaging methods
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [16, 17] ( Figs. 9.3.4–9.3.6)
		Quality standards ( Table 9.3.3)
		Drying dependent parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 9.3.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Drying of slices
			Influence of temperature [20] ( Figs. 9.3.7 and 9.3.8)
			Influence of air velocity [20] ( Figs. 9.3.9 and 9.3.10)
		Influence of the shape [20] ( Fig. 9.3.11)
		Drying of whole fruits
			Influence of temperature [14] ( Figs. 9.3.12 and 9.3.13)
		Influence of relative humidity [14] ( Fig. 9.3.14)
	Quality kinetics
		Drying of slices
			Influence of temperature [21] ( Figs. 9.3.15 and 9.3.16)
			Influence of relative humidity [21] ( Figs. 9.3.17 and 9.3.18)
		Drying of whole fruit
			Influence of temperature [22] ( Figs. 9.3.19 and 9.3.20)
		Influence of moisture content [22] ( Fig. 9.3.21)
	Recommendations
		Production of dried banana slices
			Major quality parameters
			Production and processing
		Production of dried whole fruits
			Major quality parameters
			Production and processing
	References
9.4
Fig ( Ficus carica L.)
	Morphological characteristics [1] ( Figs. 9.4.1 and 9.4.2, Table 9.4.1)
	Production
		Appropriate cultivars
			Objectives
			Cultivars [5]
		Optimum stage of maturity [6]
		Production method [7]
		Ripening [8]
		Pre-treatments
			Objectives
			Thermal pre-treatment [9, 10]
			Chemical pre-treatments [9, 10]
			Osmotic pre-treatment [11, 12]
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 9.4.2)
		Drying methods [15]
			Sun drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage
		Storage conditions [16] ( Fig. 9.4.3)
		Storage methods
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products ( Fig. 9.4.4)
		Quality standards ( Table 9.4.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 9.4.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Drying of whole fruits
			Influence of temperature [22] ( Figs. 9.4.5 and 9.4.6)
		Influence of air velocity [22] ( Fig. 9.4.7)
		Influence of relative humidity [22] ( Fig. 9.4.8)
		Drying of halved fruits
			Influence of temperature [23] ( Figs. 9.4.9 and 9.4.10)
			Influence of air velocity [23] ( Fig. 9.4.11)
		Influence of pre-treatment [10] ( Fig. 9.4.12)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of pre-treatment [10] ( Figs. 9.4.13–9.4.16)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
9.5
Grape ( Vitis vinifera L.)
	Morphological characteristics [1] ( Figs. 9.5.1 and 9.5.2, Table 9.5.1)
	Production [5]
		Appropriate cultivars
			Selection criteria
			Thompson sultana seedless (sultanas)
			Zante black currant (currants)
			Malaga Muscat grapes
		Optimum stage of maturity [5]
		Production method [5]
		Pre-treatments
			Objectives
			Thermal pre-treatments [6]
			Chemical pre-treatments [5, 7]
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 9.5.2)
		Drying methods [5]
			Sun drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 9.5.3)
		Storage facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [5] ( Figs. 9.5.4–9.5.7)
		Quality standards ( Table 9.5.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 9.5.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [5] ( Figs. 9.5.8–9.5.10)
		Influence of relative humidity [5] ( Fig. 9.5.11)
		Influence of air velocity [5] ( Figs. 9.5.12 and 9.5.13)
		Influence of size [5] ( Fig. 9.5.14)
		Influence of chemical pre-treatment [5] ( Fig. 9.5.15)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature ( Figs. 9.5.16–9.5.18)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameter of sultana raisins
		Cultivation and processing
	References
9.6
Litchi ( Litchi chinensis Sonn.)
	Morphological characteristics [1] ( Figs. 9.6.1 and 9.6.2, Table 9.6.1)
	Production
		Appropriate cultivars
			Selection criteria [5]
		Optimum stage of maturity [2, 6–8]
		Production methods
			Dried whole fruits [1, 9]
			Dried flesh [1, 5, 9]
		Pre-treatments
			Objectives
			Mechanical pre-treatments
			Thermal pre-treatment [10]
			Chemical pre-treatments [10]
		Osmotic dehydration of flesh [11]
			Objectives
			Method
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 9.6.2)
		Drying methods [5, 12]
			Whole fruit
			Flesh
	Storage [13]
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 9.6.3)
			Whole fruit
			Flesh
		Storage facilities
			Whole fruit
			Flesh
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products ( Figs. 9.6.4 and 9.6.5)
		Quality standards ( Table 9.6.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 9.6.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Drying of whole stoned fruit
			Influence of temperature [10] ( Figs. 9.6.6 and 9.6.7)
			Influence of fruit size [10] ( Fig. 9.6.8)
			Influence of chemical pre-treatments [10] ( Figs. 9.6.9–9.6.12)
			Influence of thermal pre-treatment [10] ( Fig. 9.6.13)
		Drying of flesh
			Influence of temperature [17] ( Figs. 9.6.14 and 9.6.15)
	Quality kinetics
		Drying of whole stoned fruit
			Influence of temperature [10] ( Figs. 9.6.16–9.6.18)
			Influence of pre-treatment ( Fig. 9.6.19)
		Drying of flesh
			Influence of temperature [17] ( Figs. 9.6.20 and 9.6.21)
	Recommendations
		Production of dried whole fruits
			Major quality parameters
			Production and processing
		Production of fruit flesh
			Major quality parameters
			Production and processing
	References
9.7
Longan ( Dimocarpus longan Lour.)
	Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 9.7.1 and 9.7.2, Table 9.7.1)
	Production
		Appropriate cultivars [2]
			Selection criteria
			Optimum cultivar
			Optimum stage of maturity [3, 4]
		Production method [5, 6]
			Production dried whole fruits
			Production dried flesh
		Pre-treatments of Longan flesh
			Objectives
			Mechanical pre-treatment
			Chemical pre-treatment
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 9.7.2)
		Drying methods [2, 7]
			Drying whole fruit
				High-temperature drying
			Drying flesh
				High-temperature drying
	Storage [8]
		Storage conditions ( Figs. 9.7.3–9.7.7)
			Whole fruits
			Flesh
		Storage/packaging facilities
			Whole fruits
			Flesh
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [10] ( Figs. 9.7.8 and 9.7.9)
		Quality standards ( Tables 9.7.3 and 9.7.4)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 9.7.5)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Drying of whole fruits [1]
			Influence of temperature ( Figs. 9.7.10 and 9.7.11)
			Influence of relative humidity [1] ( Fig. 9.7.12)
			Influence of the air velocity [1] ( Fig. 9.7.13)
			Influence of fruit size [1] ( Figs. 9.7.14 and 9.7.15)
		Drying of the flesh
			Influence of temperature [15] ( Fig. 9.7.16)
			Comparison of components [1] ( Fig. 9.7.17)
	Quality kinetics
		Drying of whole fruit
			Influence of temperature [16] ( Figs. 9.7.18 and 9.7.19)
		Drying of flesh [17]
			Influence of temperature ( Figs. 9.7.20–9.7.23)
	Recommendations
		Production of whole dried fruits
			Major quality parameters
			Production and processing
		Production of dried fruit flesh
			Major quality parameters
			Production and processing
	References
9.8
Mango ( Mangifera indica L.)
	Morphological characteristics [1] ( Figs. 9.8.1 and 9.8.2, Table 9.8.1)
	Production
		Appropriate cultivars
			Selection criteria
			Cultivars
		Production methods
			Mango slices [3, 4]
			Mango leather [5]
		Ripening [6–9]
			Traditional ripening method
			Artificial ripening
		Optimum stage of maturity
			Production of sliced mango [8, 9]
			Production of mango leather [5]
		Pre-treatments [6]
			Objectives
			Mechanical pre-treatments
				Mango slices
				Mango leather
				Thermal pre-treatment
				Chemical pre-treatments
			Osmotic dehydration [10–12]
				Objectives
				Osmotic treatment
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 9.8.2)
		Drying methods
			Drying mango slices
				Sun drying
				Solar drying [15]
				High-temperature drying [16]
			Drying mango leather [5]
				High-temperature drying
	Storage
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 9.8.3)
		Storage facilities
			Mango slices
			Mango leather [18]
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products ( Figs. 9.8.4–9.8.6)
		Quality standards ( Table 9.8.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 9.8.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Drying of mango slices
			Influence of temperature [21] ( Figs. 9.8.7 and 9.8.8)
			Influence of relative humidity [21] ( Figs. 9.8.9 and 9.8.10)
			Influence of air velocity [21] ( Figs. 9.8.11 and 9.8.12)
			Influence of slice thickness [21] ( Figs. 9.8.13 and 9.8.14)
			Influence of shape and size [21] ( Fig. 9.8.15)
			Influence of pre-treatment [21] ( Figs. 9.8.16–9.8.20)
		Drying of mango leather
			Influence of temperature [5, 22] ( Figs. 9.8.21 and 9.8.22)
			Influence of thermal pre-treatment [5, 22] ( Figs. 9.8.23 and 9.8.24)
		Drying of slices and drying of mango leather [5, 22] ( Fig. 9.8.25)
	Quality kinetics
		Drying of slices
			Influence of temperature [22] ( Fig. 9.8.26)
			Influence of pre-treatment [22] ( Fig. 9.8.27)
		Drying of mango leather
			Influence of temperature [5, 22] ( Figs. 9.8.28–9.8.31)
	Recommendations
		Production of mango slices
			Major quality parameters
			Production and processing
		Production of mango leather
			Major quality parameters
			Production and processing
	References
9.9
Papaya ( Carica papaya L.)
	Morphological characteristics [1] ( Figs. 9.9.1 and 9.9.2, Table 9.9.1)
	Production
		Appropriate cultivars
			Selection criteria
			Cultivars
		Optimum stage of maturity [3–5]
		Production methods [6]
		Ripening
			Natural ripening [5]
			Ripening with accelerators [7]
		Pre-treatments
			Objectives
			Mechanical pre-treatments
			Thermal pre-treatment [8]
			Chemical pre-treatments [8]
			Osmotic pre-treatment [9–11]
				Objectives
				Methods
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 9.9.2)
		Drying methods [10]
			Sun drying
			Solar drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage
		Storage conditions ( Figs. 9.9.3 and 9.9.4)
		Storage/packaging facilities [15]
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products ( Figs. 9.9.5–9.9.7)
		Quality standards ( Table 9.9.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 9.9.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Through-flow drying
			Influence of temperature [18] ( Fig. 9.9.8)
			Influence of relative humidity [18] ( Fig. 9.9.9)
			Influence of air velocity [18] ( Fig. 9.9.10)
		Over-flow drying
			Influence of temperature [18] ( Fig. 9.9.11)
			Influence of humidity [18] ( Fig. 9.9.12)
			Influence of air velocity [18] ( Fig. 9.9.13)
		Comparison through-flow and over-flow drying [18] ( Figs. 9.9.14 and 9.9.15)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature [19] ( Figs. 9.9.16–9.9.19)
		Influence of velocity [19] ( Figs. 9.9.20–9.9.22)
		Influence of chemical pre-treatment [20] ( Figs. 9.9.23–9.9.25)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
9.10
Pineapple ( Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.)
	Morphological characteristics [1] ( Figs. 9.10.1 and 9.10.2, Table 9.10.1)
	Production
		Appropriate cultivars
			Selection criteria
			Cultivar
		Optimum stage of maturity [4]
		Production method [5]
		Pre-treatments
			Objectives
			Mechanical pre-treatments
			Thermal pre-treatment [6–8]
			Chemical pre-treatments [6–10]
			Osmotic pre-treatment [11, 12]
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 9.10.2)
		Drying methods
			High-temperature drying [15]
			Solar drying [16]
	Storage
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 9.10.3)
		Storage methods
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [18] ( Figs. 9.10.4 and 9.10.5)
		Quality standards ( Table 9.10.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 9.10.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [22] ( Figs. 9.10.6 and 9.10.7)
		Influence of air velocity [22] ( Figs. 9.10.8 and 9.10.9)
			Influence of chemical pre-treatment [23] ( Fig. 9.10.10)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature [22] ( Figs. 9.10.11 and 9.10.12)
			Influence of air velocity [22] ( Figs. 9.10.13 and 9.10.14)
			Influence of chemical pre-treatment ( Figs. 9.10.15–9.10.17)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
9.11
Plum ( Prunus domestica subsp. domestica)
	Morphological characteristics [1] ( Figs. 9.11.1 and 9.11.2, Table 9.11.1)
	Production
		Appropriate cultivars [2–4]
			Selection criteria
			Cultivars
		Optimum stage of maturity [5]
		Production methods [5]
		Pre-treatments [6]
			Objectives
			Mechanical pre-treatments
				Halved fruits
				Whole fruits [7]
				Thermal pre-treatment [8]
				Chemical pre-treatments [9, 10]
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 9.11.2)
		Drying methods [6]
			Sun drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage
		Storage conditions [13] ( Fig. 9.11.3)
		Storage/packaging facilities [13]
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products ( Fig. 9.11.4)
		Quality standards ( Table 9.11.3)
		Drying relevant parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 9.11.4)
		Important ingredients
	Drying kinetics
		Drying of halved fruits
			Influence of temperature [18] ( Figs. 9.11.5–9.11.7)
			Influence of relative humidity [18] ( Fig. 9.11.8)
			Influence of air velocity [18] ( Figs. 9.11.9 and 9.11.10)
		Drying of whole fruits
			Influence of temperature [19] ( Fig. 9.11.11)
			Influence of thermal pre-treatment [19] ( Figs. 9.11.12 and 9.11.13)
			Influence of chemical pre-treatment [20] ( Fig. 9.11.14)
			Influence of size [21] ( Fig. 9.11.15)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature [22] ( Figs. 9.11.16–9.11.18)
		Influence of relative humidity [18] ( Figs. 9.11.19 and 9.11.20)
		Influence of chemical pre-treatment [18] ( Figs. 9.11.21 and 9.11.22)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
Part 10: Medicinal plants
10.1
Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.)
	Morphological characteristics (Fig. 10.1.1 and Table 10.1.1)
	Production
		Optimum stage of maturity
		Production method [2–5]
	Drying
		Drying parameter (Table 10.1.2)
		Drying methods [6, 7]
			In-field drying
			Natural drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage [8, 9]
		Storage conditions (Figs. 10.1.2–10.1.4)
		Storage facilities [11]
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [12] (Fig. 10.1.5)
		Quality standards (Table 10.1.3)
		Drying dependent parameters
		Chemical composition (Tables 10.1.4 and 10.1.5)
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [10] (Figs. 10.1.6 and 10.1.7)
		Influence of relative humidity [10] (Figs. 10.1.8 and 10.1.9)
		Influence of the cultivar [10] (Figs. 10.1.10–10.1.12)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature [10] (Figs. 10.1.13–10.1.20)
		Influence of relative humidity [10] (Figs. 10.1.21–10.1.23)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
10.2
Chamomile ( Matricaria recutita L.)
	Morphological characteristics ( Fig. 10.2.1 and Table 10.2.1)
	Production [3–8]
		Optimum stage of maturity
		Production method
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 10.2.2)
		Drying methods [9–12]
			Natural drying
			Solar drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage [13]
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 10.2.2)
		Storage facilities [15]
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [2] ( Figs. 10.2.3 and 10.2.4)
		Quality standards ( Table 10.2.3)
		Drying dependent parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 10.2.4)
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [11] ( Figs. 10.2.5–10.2.7)
		Influence of relative humidity [11] ( Figs. 10.2.8 and 10.2.9)
		Influence of air velocity [11] ( Fig. 10.2.10)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature [11] ( Figs. 10.2.11–10.2.13)
		Influence of relative humidity [11] ( Figs. 10.2.14 and 10.2.15)
		Influence of moisture content [11] ( Fig. 10.2.16)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
10.3
Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis L.)
	Morphological characteristics (Fig. 10.3.1 and Table 10.3.1)
	Production [2–5]
		Optimum stage of maturity
		Production method
	Drying
		Drying parameters (Table 10.3.2)
		Drying methods [6, 7]
			Sun drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage [9]
		Storage conditions (Figs. 10.3.2–10.3.4)
		Storage facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [1] (Fig. 10.3.5)
		Quality standards (Table 10.3.3)
		Drying dependent parameters
		Chemical composition (Table 10.3.4)
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [15] (Figs. 10.3.6 and 10.3.7)
		Influence of relative humidity [15] (Figs. 10.3.8 and 10.3.9)
		Comparison of leaves and stalks [15] (Fig. 10.3.10)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature (Figs. 10.3.11–10.3.16)
		Influence of relative humidity (Figs. 10.3.17–10.3.19)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
10.4
Marjoram ( Origanum majorana L.)
	Morphological characteristics ( Fig. 10.4.1 and Table 10.4.1)
	Production [2–5]
		Optimum stage of maturity
		Production method
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 10.4.2)
		Drying methods [6–8]
			In-field drying
		High-temperature drying
	Storage [10]
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 10.4.2)
		Storage facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [1] ( Fig. 10.4.3)
		Quality standards ( Table 10.4.3)
		Drying dependent parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 10.4.4)
	Drying kinetics ( Figs. 10.4.4 and 10.4.5)
		Influence of temperature [17]
		Influence of relative humidity [17] ( Figs. 10.4.6 and 10.4.7)
	Quality kinetics [17]
		Influence of temperature ( Figs. 10.4.8 and 10.4.9)
		Influence of the relative humidity ( Figs. 10.4.10 and 10.4.11)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
10.5
Peppermint ( Mentha x piperita L.)
	Morphological characteristics ( Fig. 10.5.1 and Table 10.5.1)
	Production
		Optimum stage of maturity
		Production method [2–4]
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 10.5.2)
		Drying methods [5, 6]
			Sun drying
			Shade drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage [8]
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 10.5.2)
		Storage facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [1, 10] ( Fig. 10.5.3)
		Quality standards ( Table 10.5.3)
		Drying dependent parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 10.5.4)
	Drying kinetics
		Drying of leaves
			Influence of temperature [14] ( Figs. 10.5.4 and 10.5.5)
			Influence of relative humidity [14] ( Figs. 10.5.6 and 10.5.7)
		Drying of the whole plant
			Influence of temperature [14] ( Figs. 10.5.8 and 10.5.9)
			Influence of relative humidity [14] ( Figs. 10.5.10–10.5.12)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature [14] ( Fig. 10.5.13)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
10.6
Sage ( Salvia officinalis L.)
	Morphological characteristics ( Fig. 10.6.1 and Table 10.6.1)
	Production [3–7]
		Optimum stage of maturity
		Production method
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 10.6.2)
		Drying methods [8, 9]
			Natural drying
			Solar drying
			High-temperature drying
	Storage [11]
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 10.6.2)
		Storage facilities [11]
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [2] ( Fig. 10.6.3)
		Quality standards ( Table 10.6.3)
		Drying dependent parameters
		Chemical composition ( Tables 10.6.4 and 10.6.5)
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [16] ( Figs. 10.6.4–10.6.6)
		Influence of relative humidity [16] ( Figs. 10.6.7 and 10.6.8)
		Influence of air velocity [16] ( Fig. 10.6.9)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature [16] ( Figs. 10.6.10–10.6.12)
		Influence of relative humidity [16] ( Figs. 10.6.13 and 10.6.14)
		Influence of drying progress [16] ( Fig. 10.6.15)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
10.7
St. John’s Wort ( Hypericum perforatum L.)
	Morphological characteristics ( Fig. 10.7.1 and Table 10.7.1)
	Production [3–6]
		Optimum stage of maturity
		Production method
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 10.7.2)
		Drying methods [7, 9]
			High-temperature drying
	Storage
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 10.7.2)
		Storage facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [2, 11] ( Fig. 10.7.3)
		Quality standards ( Table 10.7.3)
		Drying dependent parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 10.7.4)
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [16] ( Figs. 10.7.4 and 10.7.5)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature [16] ( Figs. 10.7.6 and 10.7.7)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
10.8
Tarragon ( Artemisia dracunculus L.)
	Morphological characteristics ( Fig. 10.8.1 and Table 10.8.1)
	Production [3, 4]
		Optimum stage of maturity
		Production method
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 10.8.2)
		Drying methods [5, 6]
			High-temperature drying
	Storage [7]
		Storage conditions ( Figs. 10.8.2–10.8.4)
		Storage facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [2, 10, 11] ( Fig. 10.8.5)
		Quality standards ( Table 10.8.3)
		Drying dependent parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 10.8.4)
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [14] ( Figs. 10.8.6–10.8.9)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature [15] ( Fig. 10.8.10)
		Influence of dew point temperature [15] ( Figs. 10.8.11–10.8.13)
		Influence of moisture content [15] ( Fig. 10.8.14)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
10.9
Valerian ( Valeriana officinalis L.)
	Morphological characteristics ( Fig. 10.9.1 and Table 10.9.1)
	Production [4–9]
		Optimum stage of maturity [10]
		Production method
	Drying
		Drying parameters ( Table 10.9.2)
		Drying methods [11, 12]
			High-temperature drying
	Storage [14]
		Storage conditions ( Fig. 10.9.2)
		Storage facilities
	Quality
		Utilization of dried products [1–4] ( Fig. 10.9.3)
		Quality standard ( Table 10.9.3)
		Drying dependent parameters
		Chemical composition ( Table 10.9.4)
	Drying kinetics
		Influence of temperature [17] ( Figs. 10.9.4 and 10.9.5)
		Influence of components [18] ( Fig. 10.9.6)
	Quality kinetics
		Influence of temperature [18] ( Figs. 10.9.7–10.9.9)
	Recommendations
		Major quality parameters
		Production and processing
	References
Nomenclature
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	F
	G
	H
	I
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	V
	W
	Z
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