Disinfection By-products in Drinking Water: Detection and Treatment

Cover
Disinfection By-products in Drinking Water; Detection and Treatment
Copyright
Contents
List of contributors
About the editor
	Professional experience
	Academic honors
	Visiting assignments in various universities—widely traveled
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 Methods used for the removal of disinfection by-products from water
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Disinfection by-products precursors
	1.3 Occurrence and toxicology of disinfection by-products
	1.4 Pressure-driven membrane techniques for disinfection by-products removal
	References
2 Physico-chemical techniques for the removal of disinfection by-products precursors from water
	2.1 Introduction
		2.1.1 Factors affecting the rate of trihalomethanes formation
			2.1.1.1 Impact of natural organic matter characteristics on trihalomethanes formation
			2.1.1.2 Impact of pH on trihalomethanes formation
			2.1.1.3 Impact of reaction time on trihalomethanes formation
			2.1.1.4 Impact of temperature on trihalomethans formation
			2.1.1.5 Impact of chlorine dose on trihalomethans formation
			2.1.1.6 Impact of bromide ion concentration on trihalomethans formation
		2.1.2 Role of chlorine in trihalomethanes formation
		2.1.3 Trihalomethane-mediated cancer risk assessment across globe
	2.2 Coagulation
		2.2.1 Flocculation
	2.3 Aluminum-based coagulants
	2.4 Iron-based coagulants
	2.5 Organic polyelectrolytes
	2.6 Inorganic polymer flocculants
		2.6.1 Enhanced coagulation
	2.7 Electrocoagulation
		2.7.1 Mechanism of electrocoagulation process
		2.7.2 Parameters affecting the efficiency of electrocoagulation process
			2.7.2.1 Effect of current density
			2.7.2.2 Impact of pH
			2.7.2.3 Impact of alkalinity
			2.7.2.4 Impact of electrode design
			2.7.2.5 Impact of water conductivity
		2.7.3 Impact of electrocoagulation process on the removal of aromatic fractions of natural organic matter from water
	2.8 Membrane technology
		2.8.1 Microfiltration
		2.8.2 Ultrafiltration
		2.8.3 Reverse osmosis
		2.8.4 Nanofiltration
	2.9 Adsorption
		2.9.1 Carbon-based adsorbents
		2.9.2 Nanoadsorbents
		2.9.3 Magnetic nanoabsorbents
		2.9.4 Ion exchange resin/adsorbents
		2.9.5 Metal oxide and hydroxide-based absorbents
		2.9.6 Composite and modified adsorbents
	2.10 Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
3 Degradation of trihalomethanes using ultrasound-based nanocatalyst
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Advanced oxidation process and ultrasound
	3.3 Trihalomethanes and ultrasound
	3.4 Ultrasound-based nanocatalyst for trihalomethane degradation
		3.4.1 Sonoluminescence
		3.4.2 Cavitation
	3.5 Conclusion
	References
4 Occurrence of trihalomethanes in drinking water of Indian states: a critical review
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Overview of trihalomethanes
		4.2.1 Compounds of trihalomethanes
		4.2.2 Formation of trihalomethanes
		4.2.3 Toxicity of trihalomethanes
		4.2.4 Treatment of trihalomethanes
	4.3 Occurrence of trihalomethanes in India
		4.3.1 Sources and detection of trihalomethanes in India
		4.3.2 Studies of trihalomethane formation potential in water supplies
			4.3.2.1 Conventional technique
				4.3.2.1.1 Hyderabad city
				4.3.2.1.2 Delhi city
				4.3.2.1.3 Mumbai city
				4.3.2.1.4 Kanpur city
				4.3.2.1.5 Chennai city
				4.3.2.1.6 Haryana and Uttrakand
			4.3.2.2 Modeling technique
	4.4 Risk assessment from trihalomethanes in drinking water supplies
	4.5 Conclusion
	Abbreviations
	References
5 Emerging disinfection by-products in water: novel biofiltration techniques
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Ecotoxicological effects of disinfection by-products: global research studies
	5.3 Formation and exposure of disinfection by-products in water environment: a new threat for endocrine disrupting chemical...
	5.4 Analytical methods for disinfection by-products in water: review and approach to toxicity evaluation
	5.5 Removal of disinfection by-product precursors in water: chemical, physical, and biological treatment
		5.5.1 The progress of treatment technology: riverbank filtration, slow sand filters, rapid sand filters
		5.5.2 Chemical technology: ozonation, membrane filtration, and nanofiltration
		5.5.3 Biofilter technology evidencing biodegradation of disinfection by-products: current status
	5.6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
	Further reading
6 Research status in quo of disinfection by-products formation from algal organic matter as precursors
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Algae species and algal organic matter
		6.2.1 Composition of algal organic matter
		6.2.2 Analysis methods of algal organic matter
	6.3 Algae/algal organic matters that adversely affect water quality
		6.3.1 Cyanotoxins
		6.3.2 Odorous substances
		6.3.3 Precursors of disinfection by-products formation
	6.4 Types and formation process of disinfection by-products formed by algal organic matter
		6.4.1 Carbon-containing disinfection by-products
		6.4.2 Nitrogen-containing disinfection by-products
	6.5 Methods of removing algae/algal organic matter
		6.5.1 Membrane filtration technology
		6.5.2 Enhanced coagulation technology
		6.5.3 Activated carbon treatment technology
		6.5.4 Other technologies
	6.6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
7 Disinfection by-products in food and beverages
	7.1 Application of disinfection in agricultural produce processing and implications
	7.2 Sources of disinfection by-products in industrial processes
		7.2.1 Factors influencing disinfectant activity and disinfection by-products formation
		7.2.2 Sources and factors influencing disinfection by-products formation in beverages and other foods
	7.3 Guidelines for control of disinfection by-products in food and beverages
	7.4 Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
8 Disinfection by-product-induced diseases and human health risk
	8.1 Guidelines for disinfection by-products in drinking water
	8.2 Overview of health implications of disinfection by-products in drinking water
		8.2.1 Exposure risk characterization and evaluation
		8.2.2 Noncancer health outcomes
		8.2.3 Epidemiological factors necessary for decision making
		8.2.4 Challenges in predicting health risk to disinfection by-products exposure
	8.3 Health risks with trihalomethanes
	8.4 Health risks with haloacetic acids
	8.5 Health risks with MX, chlorite, and other unregulated disinfection by-products
	8.6 Conclusion
	References
9 Disinfection by-products and their effect on aquatic and agriculture ecosystem
	9.1 Brief introduction
	9.2 Microbial hazards associated with drinking water: need for disinfection
	9.3 Disinfection
	9.4 Toxicity of disinfection by-products on microbial diversity of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem
	Abbreviations
	References
	Further reading
10 Disinfection by-products in swimming pools and health-related issues
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Types of disinfection by-products
	10.3 Disinfection by-products in swimming pools
	10.4 Pathogens in swimming pool
	10.5 Factors influencing the formation of disinfection by-products
		10.5.1 Health issues associated with disinfection by-products
	10.6 Asthma
	10.7 Lung hyperpermeability
	10.8 Cancer
	10.9 Reproduction
		10.9.1 Impact of disinfection by-products on fertility
		10.9.2 Fetal loss
		10.9.3 Fetal growth
		10.9.4 Gestational duration
		10.9.5 Congenital malformations
	10.10 Genotoxicity
	10.11 Control of disinfection by-products in swimming pools
	References
	Further reading
11 Nanotechnology applications for removal of disinfection by-products from water
	11.1 Introduction
		11.1.1 Disinfection by-products
		11.1.2 Present global status
		11.1.3 Factors contributing to the formation of disinfection by-products in drinking water
			11.1.3.1 Concentration and nature of precursors
			11.1.3.2 Presence of ions
			11.1.3.3 pH
			11.1.3.4 Water temperature and season
			11.1.3.5 Nature of disinfectant, concentration, and residual effects
			11.1.3.6 Disinfection method
			11.1.3.7 Pretreatment time and method
			11.1.3.8 Contact time
		11.1.4 Health effects of disinfection by-products
	11.2 Minimizing disinfection by-product contaminations
		11.2.1 A brief overview on minimizing strategies
		11.2.2 Nanotechnologies for the removal of disinfection by-products
			11.2.2.1 Carbon-based nanomaterials
				11.2.2.1.1 Graphene oxide
				11.2.2.1.2 Carbon nanotubes (multiwalled carbon nanotubes and single-walled carbon nanotubes)
			11.2.2.2 Single component nanomaterials and metal–nonmetal nanocomposites
				11.2.2.2.1 TiO2
				11.2.2.2.2 Nanoamorphous calcium phosphate
				11.2.2.2.3 Fe nanoparticles
				11.2.2.2.4 Ag nanoparticles
				11.2.2.2.5 Graphene oxide: TiO2
				11.2.2.2.6 Multiwalled carbon nanotubes: Fe3O4 and γ-Fe2O3
				11.2.2.2.7 SiO2–TiO2
				11.2.2.2.8 Nano-MgO
				11.2.2.2.9 Silica-nano-Fe
				11.2.2.2.10 Graphene oxide-nano-Ag
				11.2.2.2.11 Polystyrene-nano-Fe
				11.2.2.2.12 Metal nanoparticle mixtures
				11.2.2.2.13 Clay nanoparticles
				11.2.2.2.14 Micronanobubbles
				11.2.2.2.15 Nanomembranes
				11.2.2.2.16 Nanocatalysts
	11.3 Conclusions and future outlook
	References
	Further reading
12 Disinfection by-products in drinking water: detection and treatment methods
	12.1 Introduction
		12.1.1 Disinfection
			12.1.1.1 Chlorination
			12.1.1.2 Ultraviolet disinfection
			12.1.1.3 Other disinfection processes
	12.2 Hazardous effects of disinfection by-products
	12.3 Identification of disinfection by-products
		12.3.1 Gas chromatographic techniques
		12.3.2 Liquid chromatographic techniques
		12.3.3 Other identification methods
	12.4 Control methods of disinfection by-products
		12.4.1 Enhanced coagulation
		12.4.2 Activated carbon
		12.4.3 Ultraviolet rays
		12.4.4 Ozone
		12.4.5 Photo-Fenton
		12.4.6 Photocatalyst
		12.4.7 Filtration
		12.4.8 Ion exchange
	12.5 Conclusion
	References
13 Global disinfection by-products regulatory compliance framework overview, disinfection by-products in drinking water: de...
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Drinking water treatment and disinfection chemistry
		13.2.1 Typical water treatment process
		13.2.2 Disinfection by-product formation chemistry
			13.2.2.1 Chlorination chemistry
			13.2.2.2 Disinfection by-products classification
		13.2.3 Regulated disinfection by-products
	13.3 Global disinfection by-products regulatory standards
		13.3.1 Regulatory standard versus enforcement
		13.3.2 Regulatory standard versus feasibility
		13.3.3 Regulatory standard versus relevancy
		13.3.4 Global drinking water regulations timeline
		13.3.5 Global disinfection by-products regulation statistics
	13.4 Disinfection by-products standards enforcement strategies
	References
	Further reading
14 Recent research trends in controlling various types of disinfection by-products in drinking water: detection and treatment
	14.1 History of disinfection
	14.2 Background on disinfection and disinfection by-products
		14.2.1 Disinfection of drinking water
		14.2.2 Chemistry of chlorine disinfection
		14.2.3 Disinfection by-product formation
		14.2.4 Types of disinfection by-products
		14.2.5 Disinfection by-products occurrence
		14.2.6 disinfection by-products chemical structures and properties
	14.3 Consequences of disinfection by-product intake and necessity to control
	14.4 Removal of precursors
		14.4.1 Background on precursors
		14.4.2 Types of precursors and their properties
		14.4.3 Advanced treatment technologies in use
	14.5 Alternate and advanced disinfection methodologies
		14.5.1 Alternate disinfectants
		14.5.2 Advanced disinfectants
		14.5.3 Preoxidation strategies
	14.6 Operational improvements and adjustments for disinfection by-product control
		14.6.1 Background on water treatment plant operations
		14.6.2 Operational strategies and disinfection by-product control implications
		14.6.3 Consecutive systems: operational strategies and disinfection by-product control implications
	14.7 Drinking water quality modeling: prediction and management
		14.7.1 Background on drinking water quality modeling
		14.7.2 Types of prediction models
		14.7.3 Results, interpretation, and reporting
	References
15 The occurrence of various types of disinfectant by-products (trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, haloacetonitrile) in dri...
	15.1 Introduction
		15.1.1 Background
		15.1.2 Generation of disinfection by-products in drinking water
	15.2 Occurrence of disinfection by-products
	15.3 Types of disinfection by-products
		15.3.1 Trihalomethanes
		15.3.2 Haloacetic acids
		15.3.3 Haloacetonitrile
	15.4 Health effects
	15.5 Regulations
	References
	Further reading
16 Water disinfection by-products cause acute toxicity in teleosts: a review
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Disinfection by-products: a closer look
		16.2.1 Disinfection by-product and its implications: summarizing the global scenario
		16.2.2 Toxicity assessment of disinfection by-products
	16.3 Formation and classification of disinfection by-products
	16.4 Impact of disinfection by-products on aquatic ecosystem with special reference to bony fish models
	16.5 Disinfection by-products evoke reproductive toxicity
	16.6 Disinfection by-products induce endocrine disruption
	16.7 Future perspectives
	Acknowledgments
	Abbreviations
	References
	Further reading
17 Methods including biomarkers used for detection of disinfection by-products
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Method of analysis of disinfection by-products
		17.2.1 Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry
		17.2.2 Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy
		17.2.3 Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
		17.2.4 Electron spin resonance
		17.2.5 Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry
		17.2.6 Other techniques
	17.3 Biomarkers for disinfection by-products analysis: status and challenges
	17.4 Future outlook
	17.5 Conclusions
	Acknowledgment
	References
18 Factors affecting the formation of disinfection by-products in drinking water: human health risk
	18.1 Water treatment
	18.2 Types of water contaminants
	18.3 Water disinfection for biological contaminants
	18.4 Types of disinfectants
	18.5 Types of disinfection by-products
	18.6 Factors affecting concentration of disinfection by-products
		18.6.1 Effect of temperature
		18.6.2 Effect of pH
		18.6.3 Effect of organic matter
		18.6.4 Effect of free residual chlorine and chlorine dosage
		18.6.5 Effect of cosmetics
		18.6.6 Effect of contact time between disinfectant and water
		18.6.7 Effect of ultraviolet irradiation
		18.6.8 Effect of bromide concentration
	18.7 Diagnosis of disinfection by-products in water
	18.8 Standards for disinfection by-products
	18.9 Disinfection by-products and human health
		18.9.1 Effects on children
		18.9.2 On adults
	18.10 Possible remediation measures for disinfection by-products
	18.11 Concluding remarks
	References
	Further reading
Index
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