Deformation Processes in TRIP/TWIP Steels: In-Situ Characterization Techniques (Springer Series in Materials Science, 295)

Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
Abbreviations
Symbols
	Plastic Deformation
	Martensitic Phase Transformation
	Advanced High Strength Steels
	In Situ Techniques Acoustic Emission a Radius A\\left( f \\right) Transfer function (after Fourier transformation) \\vec{b} Burgers vector c_{{\\rm L}} Velocity of longitudinal wave c_{T} Velocity of transversal wave C_{i,\\,\\,j,\\,\\,k,\\,\\,l} Elastic stiffness tensor D Duration of AE event D_{ij} Force dipoles D Measure of distance D_{{\\rm EUC}} Euclidean distance D_{{\\rm MAN}} Manhattan distance D_{MIN} Minkowski distance \\hbox{d}A_{l} \\left( t \\right) Time-dependent dislocation loop area \\hbox{d}B_{AE} Decibel of acoustic emission E AE energy E\\left( f \\right) Source function (after Fourier transformation) E\\left( {f_{1} ,f_{2} } \\right) Narrow band energy f Frequency f_{{\\rm a}} Averaged frequency f_{{\\rm c}} Fundamental frequency f_{{\\rm eff}} Effective width of spectrum f_{i} Observed frequency f_{{\\rm m}} Median frequency f_{{\\rm N}} Nyquist frequency (cut-off frequency) F_{i} Expected frequency G\\left( f \\right) Power spectral density function G^{{\\rm noise}} \\left( f \\right) Power spectrum of electrical noise G_{{\\rm max}} Maximum of power spectral density function G^{i} \\left( f \\right) Integrated power spectral density function G_{ij} Green’s function G^{{\\rm H}} Heaviside Green’s function g\\left( f \\right) Normalized power spectral density function i , j , k , l Space variables K Number of class intervals K_{{\\rm u},\\,\\,{\\rm PA}} Gain of used pre-amplifier \\hat{k} Space–time variable k Number of desired clusters k_{i} , k_{j} Individual clusters m Activity of acoustic emission (AE) m_{i} , m_{j} Centroids of individual clusters n_{i} , n_{j} Number of elements within each individual clusters N Number of counts, number of observations N Length of time-series {\\Delta }N Number of AE hits P\\left( x \\right) Probability distribution function p_{1} , p_{2} , p_{3} Point coordinates q_{1} , q_{2} , q_{3} Point coordinates q_{{\\rm f}} Kurtosis (frequency domain) q_{{\\rm x}} Kurtosis (time domain) r Number of independent variables r Distance between source and epicentre r , r^{\\prime} Space coordinates \\vec{r}_{0} Centroid position of point-like source R Rise time R_{xx} \\left( \\tau \\right) Auto-correlation function R_{yy} \\left( \\tau \\right) Auto-correlation function R_{xy} \\left( \\tau \\right) Cross-correlation function r_{x} \\left( \\tau \\right) Normalized auto-correlation function r\\left( \\tau \\right) Normalized auto-correlation function of Poisson distribution s_{{\\rm f}} Skewness (frequency domain) s_{{\\rm x}} Skewness (time domain) S_{1} , S_{2} , S_{3} Individual clusters t Time t , t^{\\prime} Time coordinates {\\Delta }t Unit time, time interval {\\Delta }t_{{\\rm s}} Sampling time interval T Displacement threshold T Transducer response u_{i} \\left( {r,\\,t} \\right) Displacement in ith direction depending on space and time coordinates U\\left( t \\right) Voltage of measured signals at transducer \\overline{{U^{2} }} Mean square voltage \\overline{{U_{{\\rm noise}}^{2} }} Average background noise U_{{\\rm p}} Maximum AE amplitude, peak voltage U_{{\\rm RMS}} Root mean square voltage U_{{\\rm th}} Threshold value for voltage signal U_{z} Maximum displacement in z-direction (surface normal) v Velocity x_{1} , x_{2} , x_{3} Elements of data set X\\left( t \\right) Random data \\hat{X}\\left( t \\right) Fourier transform of X\\left( t \\right) \\hat{X}_{{\\rm T}} \\left( t \\right) Truncated Fourier transform of X\\left( t \\right) Y\\left( t \\right) Random data Z_{{\\rm cc}} Correlation coefficient \\alpha Significance level \\gamma_{{\\rm merged}} Centroid drift vector \\delta \\left( {t - t^{\\prime}} \\right) Delta function \\delta_{{\\rm merged}} Inter-cluster distance \\mu_{x} Mean value \\mu_{x}^{\\left( 1 \\right)} First moment \\mu_{x}^{\\left( 2 \\right)} Second moment \\sigma Source function (time domain) \\sigma Pre-existing vertical stress \\sigma_{x} Standard deviation \\sigma_{x}^{2} Variance (time domain) \\sigma_{{\\rm f}}^{2} Variance (frequency domain) \\tau Inter-event time interval \\tau_{0} Relaxation time \\chi^{2} Chi-square function {X}^{2} Goodness-of-fit test {\\Psi }^{2} \\left( t \\right) Mean square value
	Displacement and Strain Fields
	Temperature Fields
	Fully-Coupled Measurements
	High-alloy CrMnNi TRIP/TWIP Steels
	Case Studies
List of Figures
List of Tables
1 Motivation
	References
2 Plastic Deformation and Strain Localizations
	Abstract
	2.1 Plastic Deformation
	2.2 Dislocation Glide
	2.3 Deformation Twinning
	2.4 Critical Resolved Shear Stress
	2.5 Strain Hardening
	2.6 Strain Localizations
		2.6.1 Strain Localizations on Microscopic Scale
			2.6.1.1 Slip Bands/Deformation Bands
			2.6.1.2 Persistent Slip Bands
			2.6.1.3 Shear Bands
		2.6.2 Strain Localizations on Macroscopic Scale
			2.6.2.1 Lüders Effect
			2.6.2.2 Portevin–Le Chatelier Effect
	References
3 Martensitic Phase Transformation
	Abstract
	3.1 General Considerations
	3.2 Thermodynamic Aspects of Martensitic Phase Transformation
	3.3 Martensite in Ferrous Alloys
	3.4 Martensitic Phase Transformation in Steels
		3.4.1 Direct γ to α′ Transformation
		3.4.2 Direct γ to ε Transformation
		3.4.3 Direct ε to α′ Transformation
		3.4.4 Indirect γ–α′ Transformation via ε-Martensite
	3.5 Influence of Stacking-Fault Energy
	3.6 Olson–Cohen Model of Martensitic Phase Transformation
	References
4 Advanced High-Strength Steels
	Abstract
	4.1 General Considerations
	4.2 Twinning-Induced Plasticity (TWIP) Steels
		4.2.1 Thermodynamic Aspects of TWIP Steels
		4.2.2 Deformation Behaviour of TWIP Steels
		4.2.3 Modelling of the TWIP Effect
	4.3 Transformation-Induced Plasticity (TRIP) Steels
		4.3.1 Thermodynamic Aspects of TRIP Steels
		4.3.2 Deformation Behaviour of TRIP Steels
		4.3.3 Modelling of the TRIP Effect
	References
5 In Situ Techniques for Characterization of Strain Localizations and Time Sequence of Deformation Processes
	Abstract
	5.1 General Considerations
	5.2 In Situ Imaging Techniques
		5.2.1 Optical Microscopy
			5.2.1.1 In Situ Experiments with Optical Microscopy
			5.2.1.2 State of the Art in Materials Engineering
		5.2.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy
			5.2.2.1 In Situ Experiments in Scanning Electron Microscopes
			5.2.2.2 State of the Art in Materials Engineering
	5.3 In Situ Acoustic Emission Measurements
		5.3.1 General Aspects of Acoustic Emission
		5.3.2 Acoustic Emission—A Multiscale Random Time-Series Process
		5.3.3 Sources of Acoustic Emission
		5.3.4 Instrumentation and Data Acquisition
		5.3.5 Processing of AE Data
		5.3.6 State of the Art in Materials Engineering
	5.4 In Situ Full-Field Measurement Techniques
		5.4.1 Displacement and Strain Fields
			5.4.1.1 General Aspects of Digital Image Correlation
			5.4.1.2 Principles of Digital Image Correlation
			5.4.1.3 Computation of 2D Strain Values
			5.4.1.4 State of the Art in Materials Engineering
		5.4.2 Temperature Fields
			5.4.2.1 General Aspects of Infrared Thermography
			5.4.2.2 Heat Sources and Dissipated Energy
			5.4.2.3 State of the Art in Materials Engineering
		5.4.3 Fully-Coupled Measurements
	References
6 Object of Investigations—High-Alloy Fe–16Cr–6Mn–xNi–0.05C Cast Steels with TRIP/TWIP Effect
	Abstract
	6.1 General Considerations on High-Alloy Fe–16Cr–6Mn–xNi–0.05C TRIP/TWIP Steels
	6.2 Applied Methods for Characterization of the Deformation Behaviour and the Related Microstructures
		6.2.1 Deformation Experiments
		6.2.2 Microstructural Characterization Techniques
	6.3 Mechanical Behaviour
		6.3.1 Uniaxial Quasi-static Loading
		6.3.2 Uniaxial Cyclic Loading
		6.3.3 Planar-Biaxial Loading
	6.4 Microstructure Evolution
		6.4.1 Fe–16Cr–6Mn–6Ni–0.05C Steel
		6.4.2 Fe–16Cr–6Mn–9Ni–0.05C Steel
		6.4.3 Fe–16Cr–6Mn–3Ni–0.05C Steel
	References
7 Case Studies on Localized Deformation Processes in High-Alloy Fe–16Cr–6Mn–xNi–0.05C Cast Steels
	Abstract
	7.1 Significance of Complementary In Situ Characterization Techniques
	7.2 Microscopic Strain Localizations During Plastic Deformation
		7.2.1 In Situ Deformation in the Scanning Electron Microscope
		7.2.2 High-Resolution DIC (Sub-µDIC) for Evaluation of Local Strain Fields
		7.2.3 Strain Localization During Tensile Deformation
		7.2.4 Orientation-Dependent Magnitude of Shear of Individual Martensitic Grains
		7.2.5 Magnitude of Shear of Twin Bundles
		7.2.6 Strain Localization During Cyclic Deformation
		7.2.7 Discussion
	7.3 Time Sequence of Deformation Processes
		7.3.1 Acoustic Emission Measurements and Analysis
		7.3.2 Acoustic Emission During the Deformation Process
		7.3.3 Influence of Chemical Composition
		7.3.4 Evolution of Martensitic Phase Transformation at Room Temperature
		7.3.5 Influence of Deformation Temperature
		7.3.6 Discussion
	7.4 Macroscopic Strain Localization During Plastic Deformation
		7.4.1 Fully-Coupled Full-Field Measurements
		7.4.2 The Occurrence of Portevin–Le Chatelier (PLC) Effect
		7.4.3 Temperature and Strain Fields
		7.4.4 Portevin–Le Chatelier Effect and Acoustic Emission
		7.4.5 Correlation of PLC Effect with Martensitic Volume Fraction
		7.4.6 Discussion
	References
8 Prospects of Complementary In Situ Techniques
	Abstract
	8.1 General Remarks
	8.2 Complementary In Situ Techniques and Microstructural-Based Modelling
	8.3 Example 1: Modelling of Strain-Hardening Behaviour of CrMnNi TRIP/TWIP Steels
		8.3.1 Orientation Dependence of Deformation Mechanisms Detected by AE
		8.3.2 Strain Localizations Across the Length Scale of Microstructure
	8.4 Example 2: Damage Behaviour of TRIP Matrix Composites
	8.5 Example 3: Deformation and Damage Behaviour of Laminated TRIP/TWIP Composites
	8.6 Example 4: Shape Memory Materials
	References
9 Concluding Remarks
Appendix
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Index
488628_1_En_10_Chapter_OnlinePDF.pdf
	10 Correction to: Deformation Processes in TRIP/TWIP Steels
		Correction to: A. Weidner, Deformation Processes in TRIP/TWIP Steels, Springer Series in Materials Science 295, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37149-4