Cross-Cultural Psychology: Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications

Cover
Endorsements
Half Title
Title
Copyright
Dedication
Brief Contents
Detailed Contents
About the Authors
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 Understanding Cross-Cultural Psychology
	What Is Cross-Cultural Psychology?
	A Condensed History of the Field
	Basic Definitions
		Culture
		Society, Race, Ethnicity, Nationality, and Religious Identity
		Knowledge in Cross-Cultural Psychology
	Cultural Traditionalism vs. Nontraditionalism
	Empirical Examination of Culture
	Collectivism and Individualism: Further Research
	The Natural Sciences Approach
	The Social Sciences Approach
	The Humanities Approach
	The Ecocultural Approach
	The Cultural Mixtures Approach
	The Integrative Approach: A Summary
	Other Key Concepts in Cross-Cultural Psychology
		Multiculturalism
		Ethnocentrism
		Indigenous Psychology
	Chapter Summary
	Key Terms
	References
2 Critical Thinking in Cross-Cultural Psychology
	The Evaluative Bias of Language: To Describe Is to Prescribe
		Antidotes
	Differentiating Dichotomous Variables and Continuous Variables: Black and White, or Shades of Gray?
		Antidotes
	The Similarity–Uniqueness Paradox: All Phenomena Are Both Similar and Different
		Antidotes
	The Barnum Effect: “One-Size-Fits-All” Descriptions
		Antidotes
	The Assimilation Bias: Viewing the World Through Schema-Colored Glasses
		Antidotes
	The Representativeness Bias: Fits and Misfits of Categorization
		Antidotes
	The Availability Bias: The Persuasive Power of Vivid Events
		Antidotes
	The Fundamental Attribution Error: Underestimating the Impact of External Influences
		Antidotes
	The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: When Expectations Create Reality
		Antidotes
	Correlation Does Not Prove Causation: Confusing “What” with “Why”
		Antidotes
	Bidirectional Causation and Multiple Causation: Causal Loops and Compound Pathways
		Bidirectional Causation
		Multiple Causation
		Antidotes
	The Naturalistic Fallacy: Blurring the Line between “Is” and “Should”
		Antidotes
	The Belief Perseverance Effect: “Don’t Confuse Me with the Facts!”
		Antidotes
	Conclusions: “To Metathink or Not to Metathink?”
	Chapter Summary
	Key Terms
	References
3 Methodology of Cross-Cultural Research
	Goals of Cross-Cultural Research
	Quantitative Research in Cross-Cultural Psychology
	Qualitative Approach in Cross-Cultural Psychology
	Major Steps for Preparation of a Cross-Cultural Study
	Sample Selection
	Observation in Cross-Cultural Psychology
	Survey Methods
	Self-Reports
	Experimental Studies
	Content Analysis
	Focus Group Methodology
	Mixed and Holistic Methods
	Meta-Analysis: Research of Research
	A Hidden Obstacle of Cross-Cultural Studies: Test Translation
	Comparing Two Phenomena: Some Important Principles
	On Similarities and Differences: Some Critical Thinking Applications
	Cultural Dichotomies
		There Are Fewer Differences than One Might Think
		There Are More Differences than One Might Expect
	Avoiding Generalization Bias
	Learn More about Cultures that You Examine
	Chapter Summary
	Key Terms
	References
4 Cognition: Sensation, Perception, and States of Consciousness
	Sensation and Perception: Basic Principles
	How Culture Influences What We Perceive
	How People Perceive Pictures
	Perceptual Visual Illusions
	Cultural Patterns in Drawings
	Perception of Color
	Other Senses
		Hearing
		Taste
		Smell
		Touch and Pain
		Proprioceptive Senses
	Perception of Time
	Perception of the Beautiful
	Perception of Music
	Consciousness and Culture
	Sleep and the Cultural Significance of Dreams
	Beyond Altered States of Consciousness
	Chapter Summary
	Key Terms
	References
5 Intelligence
	Defining Intelligence
	Ethnic Differences in IQ Scores
	Gender Differences in IQ Scores
	Explaining Group Differences in Test Scores: Intelligence and Intelligent Behavior
	Do Biological Factors Contribute to Intelligence?
	Incompatibility of Tests: Cultural Biases
	A Word about “Cultural Literacy”
	Environment and Intelligence
	Socioeconomic Factors
	The Family Factor
	“Natural Selection” and IQ Scores
	Cultural Values of Cognition
	General Cognition: What Is “Underneath” Intelligence?
		Classification
		Sorting
		Memory
		Reasoning: Formal and Empirical
		Creativity
	Cognitive Skills, School Grades, and Educational Systems
	Culture, Tests, and Motivation
	IQ, Culture, and Social Justice
	And in the End . . . Moral Values
	Chapter Summary
	Key Terms
	References
6 Emotion
	Similarities in Emotional Experience: When We Laugh, We Are Happy
	Differences in Emotional Experience: You Cannot Explain Pain if You Have Never Been Hurt
	Emotions: Different or Universal?
	Physiological Arousal
	The Meaning of Preceding Events
	Evaluation of Emotions
	We Are Expected to Feel in a Particular Way
	How People Assess Emotional Experience
	Expression of Emotion
	Emotion and Inclination to Act
	Emotion and Judgment
	When Emotions Signal a Challenge: Cross-Cultural Research on Stress and Anxiety
	When Emotion Hurts: Cross-Cultural Studies of Anger
	Building Positive Emotions: Cross-Cultural Studies of Happiness
	Chapter Summary
	Key Terms
	References
7 Motivation and Behavior
	Impulse Gratification
	A Glance into Evolution
	Social Sciences Approaches
	Two Universal Mechanisms of Motivation: Drive and Arousal Theory
	The Power of the Unconscious: Psychodynamic Theory
	Intrinsic Striving Toward Growth: Humanistic Theory
	Shaping Motivation: Learning Theory
	Maggot Cheese, Fish Semen, and Warthog Anus: Hunger and Cross-Cultural Food Preferences
	When Hunger Causes Distress: Eating Disorders
	Goals and Success: Achievement Motivation
	Aggressive Motivation And Violence
		Biological Mechanisms
		Sex Differences
		Frustration and Aggression
		Self-Esteem
		Vicarious Learning
		Social Norms
	Culture and Sexuality
		The “Traditional vs. Nontraditional Culture” Dilemma
		Anti-Female Violence
		Sex Culture and Clothing
		Sexual Orientation
	Sex and Sexuality: Some Cross-Cultural Similarities and Differences
	Chapter Summary
	Key Terms
	References
8 Human Development and Socialization
	Development and Socialization
	Quality of Life and the Child’s Development
	Norms, Customs, and Child Care
	Parental Values and Expectations
	Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
	Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
	Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
	Developmental Stages
	Prenatal Period: Development before Birth
	Infancy: First Steps
		Temperament
		Attachment
		Motor Skills
		Breastfeeding
		Language
	Childhood: Discovering the World
		Eating
		Social Identity
		Play
		Social Norms
	Adolescence: Major Rehearsal
		Rebelliousness and Socialization
	Adulthood: A Period of Maturity
	Late Adulthood: The Final Stretch
	Chapter Summary
	Key Terms
	References
9 Psychological Disorders
	American Background: DSM-5-TR
	Two Views on Culture and Psychological Disorders: Universalist vs. Relativist
		Central and Peripheral Symptoms: An Outcome of the Debate between Universalists and Relativists
	Cultural Syndromes
	Anxiety Disorders
	Depressive Disorders
		Depression through the Ages
		Depression Today
		Symptoms of Depression: Somatic vs. Psychological
	Schizophrenia
	Culture and Suicide
	Personality Disorders
	Is Substance Abuse Culture-Bound?
	Psychodiagnostic Biases
	Psychotherapy
		Nontraditional Therapies
	Culture: To Match or Not to Match?
	Chapter Summary
	Key Terms
	References
10 Social Perception, Social Cognition, and Social Interaction
	Attitudes and Values
	Western and Non-Western Values
	Striving for Consistency: Cognitive Balance Theory
	Avoiding Inconsistency: Cognitive Dissonance
	Psychological Dogmatism
	Social Attribution
	Attribution of Success and Failure
	Duty and Fairness in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures
	Stereotypes and the Power of Generalizations
	Universal Interaction
	“Reading” Body Language and Verbal Cues
	Conformity: “What Is the Group Doing?”
		Is Conformity Universal across Cultures?
	Obedience: “I Was Only Following Orders”
	Social Influence
	Group Dynamics: Interpersonal Pushes and Pulls
		Is Social Loafing Universal?
	Chapter Summary
	Key Terms
	References
11 Personality and the Self
	What Is Personality?
	Locus of Control
	On “National Character”
	The Self
	The Self and Sex
		Traditional Cultural Views of the Sexes
		The Sexes and the Intersex
		Evolving Views of the Sexes
	Gender as a Social Construct
	Gender Roles
		Traditional Views of Gender
		Evolving Views of Gender
	Sexual Orientation: Evolving Perceptions
	Religious Identity
	Perceiving One’s Own Body
	Chapter Summary
	Key Terms
	References
12 Applied Cross-Cultural Psychology: Important Highlights from Social Justice, Digital Culture, and Health Care
	Modern Social Justice Movements
		Social Justice and Race
		Social Justice and Women’s Rights
		Christine vs. Brett
		Reproductive Rights and Abortion
		Social Justice and LGBTQ+ Rights
		Social Justice, Ageism, and Disability
	Environmental Justice
		Greenpeace
	Digital Culture and Its Applications
		Digital Footprints
		Privacy
		Trolling
		Digital Companionship
	Nationalism, War, and Peace
		Fundamentalism
		Peace Psychology
	Health Care
		Poverty, Culture, and Health
		Spirituality, Science, and Health
		Holistic Treatment
	Conclusions
	Chapter Summary
	Key Terms
	References
Index