Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture: Concepts, Issues and Policies for Developing Countries

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgment
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Abbreviations
Part I: Climate Change Concepts and Issues for Developing Countries
	Global Framework on Climate Change
		1 Introduction
		2 Global Impact of Climate Change on Crop Phenology
		3 Global Climate Change Impact on Crop Productivity
		4 Global Climate Change Impact on Quality
		5 United Nations Framework on Climate Change
			5.1 Kyoto Protocol Signatories and Emission Targets
			5.2 A History of Negotiations on Climate Change
			5.3 Climate Change International Framework: Outline
		6 Conclusions
		References
	Conceptual Elucidation of Climate Change for Developing Countries
		1 Introduction
		2 Major Indicators of Climate Change
			2.1 Rise in Temperatures
			2.2 Heavy Precipitation
			2.3 Melting of Glaciers
			2.4 Drought
			2.5 Decreasing Snow Fall and Rising Sea Level
			2.6 Greenhouse Effect
				2.6.1 Impact of Climate Change on Different Sectors
				2.6.2 Forest Sector
				2.6.3 Pest and Diseases
				2.6.4 Water Resources
				2.6.5 Livestock Sector
				2.6.6 Effect of Climate Changes on Human and Natural Environment
		3 Limiting Factors That Intensify Climate Risks in the Developing Countries
		4 Effect of Global Climate Change on Developing Countries
			4.1 Effect of Global Climate Change in Pakistan
				4.1.1 Observed Changes in Climate (Meteorological Facts)
				4.1.2 Pakistan Meteorological Department Observations
				4.1.3 Impacts of Climate Change
					Economic Impacts
			4.2 Effect of Global Climate Change in India
				4.2.1 Factors That Influence the Climate of India
					Latitudinal Location
					Distance from the Ocean
					Monsoon Winds and Indian Climate
			4.3 Effect of Global Climate Change in India
				4.3.1 Economic Impact
				4.3.2 Agriculture
				4.3.3 Health Impacts
		5 Adaptation to Future Climate Change
			5.1 Developing Countries Vulnerability to Climate Change
				5.1.1 Vulnerability to Climate Change
				5.1.2 Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change
			5.2 Climate Change Policies for Developing Countries
		6 Climate Change Mitigation Strategies Adopted by Pakistan Government
			6.1 Forestry
			6.2 The Major Activities Are Given as Follows
				6.2.1 Ten Billion Tree Tsunami Program (TBTTP)
				6.2.2 Seasonal Tree Planting Campaigns
				6.2.3 Seasonal Tree Planting Campaigns
				6.2.4 Clean Green Pakistan Index
				6.2.5 Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) Participation
				6.2.6 Preparation of Pakistan’s National Drought Plan
				6.2.7 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP)
				6.2.8 Declaration of Marine Protected Areas
			6.3 Measures to Protect Environment
			6.4 Reducing GHG Emissions from Agriculture and Land Use Change
				6.4.1 Background
				6.4.2 Introduction
			6.5 Reduction of Emission Through New Technologies
				6.5.1 Better Manure Management Resulted in Lesser Emission
				6.5.2 Increasing Nitrogen Use Efficiency Lessen Emission
				6.5.3 Emission Reduction in Rice Management and Varieties
				6.5.4 The Necessity of Technology and Regulations
		7 Cost-Benefit Analysis for Climate Change Adaptation
			7.1 Overview
			7.2 CBA of Climate Change Adaptation Options
			7.3 CBA of Agriculture Adaptation Options: The Basic Steps
		8 Conclusion
		References
	Climate Change and Social Concerns
		1 Introduction
			1.1 Climate Change
			1.2 Climate Change Impact on Humans
			1.3 Key Vulnerabilities
				1.3.1 Very High Confidence
				1.3.2 High Confidence
				1.3.3 Medium Confidence
			1.4 Health
			1.5 Environment
				1.5.1 Temperature Variations
				1.5.2 Low Temperature
			1.6 Water
			1.7 Agriculture
			1.8 Oxygen Deficiency
			1.9 Dislocation and Migration
			1.10 The Way Forward: Integrated Climate Change Policy Responses and Mitigations
				1.10.1 Seizing Opportunities
				1.10.2 Responding to Knowledge Gaps
				1.10.3 Refining Climate Policy Processes
			1.11 Conjunction of Agendas into Benefits with Crosscutting Inferences
				1.11.1 Urban Development
				1.11.2 Health and Nutrition
				1.11.3 Sustainable Livelihoods and Employment
				1.11.4 Disaster Risk Management (DRM)
		2 Conclusion
		References
	Unpredictable Weather and Agriculture-Based Economy of Developing Countries
		1 Introduction
		2 Data and Methods
		3 Technical Analysis
		4 Importance of Air Temperature
		5 Conclusion
		References
	Nutrition-Sensitive Climate-Smart Agriculture
		1 Climate Change and Nutrition-Sensitive Agriculture
		2 The Pathway of Climate Change Impacts from Agriculture to Nutrition
		3 Crosscutting Approach on Climate-Smart Agriculture and Nutrition-Sensitive Agriculture
		4 Agricultural Extension Services for Nutrition-Sensitive Climate-Smart Agriculture
		5 Adapting and Building Resilience to Climate Change for Food and Nutrition Security
		6 Gender Dimension and Social and Behavior Change for Nutrition-Sensitive Climate-Smart Agriculture
		7 Nutrition-Sensitive Climate-Smart Agriculture Best Practices
		8 Conclusion
		References
	Food Security Issues in Changing Climate
		1 Introduction
		2 Climate Change, Effect on Plant Phenology, and Yield
		3 Various Crop Development Limiting Factors
		4 Impact on Physiological and Biochemical Processes in Plants
		5 Application of Improved Plant Breeding Techniques
		6 Aspects Influencing Food Security
		7 Conclusion
		References
	Engineering Principles of Precision Farming: Pathway for the Developing Countries to Ensure Food Security
		1 Basics of Precision Farming
		2 The History and Current Status of Precision Farming
		3 Precision Agriculture Scope
		4 Development of Precision Agriculture
		5 Information Flow of Precision Agriculture
			5.1 Variability Characterizations
		6 Current Practices in Precision Agriculture
			6.1 Irrigation Methods and Systems
				6.1.1 Surface Irrigation Methods
				6.1.2 Drip Irrigation
				6.1.3 Drip Irrigation Limitations
			6.2 Sprinkler Irrigation System
			6.3 Types of Sprinkler Irrigation Systems
				6.3.1 Rotating Head Systems
				6.3.2 Perforated Pipe Systems
				6.3.3 Portable Sprinkler System
				6.3.4 Rain Gun Systems
				6.3.5 Central Pivot Systems
				6.3.6 Sprinkler System Limits
				6.3.7 Laser Land Leveling
				6.3.8 Benefits and Limitations
		7 Variable Rate Technologies
		8 GIS Application in Agriculture
		9 GPS and DGPS System Use
		10 Geostatistics
		11 Satellite Remote-Sensing Application
		12 Sampling and Interpolation Techniques
		13 Yield Monitoring Techniques
		14 Smart Sensors and IoT Applications
		15 Delineation of Management Zones
		16 Introduction to Agricultural Robotics and Unmanned Arial Vehicles
		17 Conclusion
		References
	GHG Management Implications for Developed and Developing Nations
		1 Introduction and Background
			1.1 Different Types of GHGs
			1.2 Status and Effects of GHGs in Developing and Developed Countries
			1.3 Current Scenario of Adaption and Mitigation of GHG
		2 GHG Emission Source
			2.1 Emission from Transportation
			2.2 Electricity Production
			2.3 Domestic and Commercial
			2.4 Industry and Industrial Processes
			2.5 Wastes and Wastewater
			2.6 Agriculture, Forestry, and Land Use Pattern
		3 GHG Emission Management
			3.1 Need for GHG Emission Management
			3.2 GHG Emission Management Systems
			3.3 Classification of GHG Management Policies
		4 Policies and Implications to Mitigate GHG Emission
			4.1 Technologies, Strategies, and Policies to Manage GHG Emissions
				4.1.1 Decarbonization Technologies
				4.1.2 Renewable Energy
				4.1.3 Fuel Shift and Efficiency Improvement
				4.1.4 Carbon Capture, Storage, and Utilization Technologies
				4.1.5 Carbon Capture Options
				4.1.6 Radiative Forcing Geoengineering Technologies
				4.1.7 Stratospheric Aerosol Injection
				4.1.8 Space-Based Mirrors
				4.1.9 Cirrus Cloud Thinning
			4.2 Factors Affecting Applicability of the Policy and Implications
				4.2.1 Capacity of the Local Government
				4.2.2 Organizational Resources
				4.2.3 Local Framing
				4.2.4 Organizational Factors
				4.2.5 Staff, Information, and Financial Resources
			4.3 Criteria for Evaluating Policies and Instruments
				4.3.1 What Is Policy Evaluation?
				4.3.2 Criteria for Policy Evaluation
				4.3.3 Policy Evaluation and Time
				4.3.4 Spatial Dimension
			4.4 Evaluation of Climate Change Adaptation Projects
				4.4.1 Renewable Energy Technologies (RETs)
				4.4.2 Developed Country Perspective
		5 Conclusion
		References
	Concept of Climate Finance
		1 Introduction
			1.1 What Is Climate Finance?
		2 Moving Toward Solution: The Paris Accord
			2.1 Climate Finance Leadership Landscape
				2.1.1 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
			2.2 Kyoto Protocol
			2.3 UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
			2.4 Climate Investment Fund
		3 Financial Calculus of Climate Finance
		4 Types of Sources of Finance
			4.1 Public Actors (Government and Multilateral Climate Fund)
			4.2 Private Climate Finance
		5 Climate Finance in Developing Nations
		6 Newer Transformative Approach to Climate Finance
		References
Part II: Policy Measures for Adaptation: Social Security
	Need of Social Security in Vulnerable Countries: A Comparison of a Developed and a Developing Country
		1 Social Security Systems Implications in Pakistan
			1.1 Social Security in Pakistan: Background and History
			1.2 Methodology
			1.3 Social Security Systems in Pakistan
				1.3.1 Formal Social Security Schemes in Pakistan
				1.3.2 Informal Social Security Schemes in Pakistan
			1.4 The Current Portfolio of Social Security in Pakistan
				1.4.1 Ehsaas Program
				1.4.2 Koi Bhooka Na Soye (No One Should Sleep Hungry)
				1.4.3 Kamyab Jawan Program (Successful Youth Program)
				1.4.4 Sehat Sahulat Program (Health Insurance Program)
				1.4.5 Kisan Card (Farmer Card)
			1.5 Impact of Social Security Portfolio on the Society
				1.5.1 Statistics of the Benefiters
			1.6 Impact of Social Security Schemes on Poverty Alleviation
				1.6.1 Social Security Schemes and Women Empowerment
				1.6.2 Social Security Programs for Senior Citizens of Pakistan
				1.6.3 Social Security Schemes in Wake of the Crisis
			1.7 Implication
		2 Social Security Systems Implications in Turkey
			2.1 Social Security in Turkey: Background and History
				2.1.1 History of the Ottoman Empire
				2.1.2 History of the Republic of Turkey
				2.1.3 The Overall History of the Establishment of Social Security Funds, Rights, and the Institutes in the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey
			2.2 The Current Portfolio of the Social Security System
				2.2.1 Social Security Coverages
				2.2.2 Budgetary Share of the Government Spending to the Social Security System
			2.3 Impacts of the Social Security Schemes on the Society
				2.3.1 Statistics of the Benefiters
				2.3.2 Impacts on the Labour Supply
				2.3.3 Impact of Social Security in the Crises Period
				2.3.4 Distributional Impacts of Social Security on the Welfare of the People
		3 Conclusion and Recommendations
		References
	Climate and Development
		1 Introduction
		2 What Causes Climate Change
		3 Climate Change Effects on Developing Countries
		4 Development and Environmental Degradation
		5 Climate Change Impacts
		6 Urbanization and Climate Change
		7 Urban Floods and Climate Change
		8 Cities and Climate Change
		9 Climate Change Impacts on Urban Floods
		10 Climate Change and the Environment
		11 Socioeconomic Impacts of Climate Change
		12 Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture
		13 Policy Measures for Adaptation
		14 European Union’s Adaptations
		15 Conclusion
		References
	Sustainable Development Goals and Governments’ Roles for Social Protection
		1 Introduction
		2 The Sustainable Development Goals in Developing Countries
		3 Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals
		4 Social Protection Tools and Frameworks
		5 Social Protection Mechanisms for Climate Change and Adaptation
		6 Responsibilities of Government for Social Protection
		7 Conclusion and Future Recommendations
		References
	Integrated Farming Approach
		1 Introduction
		2 Aquaculture and Food Security
		3 Integrated Fish Farming and Economy
			3.1 Food Security
			3.2 Superior Income Sources
			3.3 Self-Sufficient Farming
			3.4 Employment and Job Opportunities
		4 IFF and Ecology
			4.1 Fertilizer
			4.2 Nutritional Cycle
			4.3 IFFS and Soil Health
			4.4 Production Capacity
		5 Ecological Sustainability of IFF
		6 Integrated Fish Farming and Biodiversity
		7 Income, Food Diversity, and IFF
		8 IFF and Modern Techniques
		9 Advantages of IFF
		10 Types of IFF
			10.1 Agri-Based Fish Farming
			10.2 Livestock Fish Farming
				10.2.1 Poultry-Cum-Fish Farming
				10.2.2 Duck-Cum-Fish Culture
				10.2.3 Cattle-Cum-Fish Culture
				10.2.4 Goat-Cum Fish Integration
				10.2.5 Rabbit-Fish Integration
		11 Future Action and Conclusion
		References
	An Overview of Precision Agricultural Technologies for Crop Yield Enhancement and Environmental Sustainability
		1 Introduction
			1.1 Precision Agriculture (PA)
			1.2 Relationship of Precision Agriculture (PA) with Digital Agriculture
			1.3 Precision Agriculture (PA) Approaches: Instruments and Methods
			1.4 Positioning System Development for PA
			1.5 Guidance Systems for Agricultural Machinery
			1.6 Nitrogen Management Practices in Precision Agriculture (PA)
			1.7 Remote Sensing in Precision Agriculture
			1.8 Nitrogen Management Using Satellite Remote Sensing
			1.9 Transmuting Remote Sensing as Proximal Remote Sensing
			1.10 Precision N Management Using Proximal Sensing
			1.11 Precision N Management Using Active Canopy Sensors (ACSs)
			1.12 Application of Green Seeker (GS) for Precision N Management
			1.13 Application of Crop Circle (CC) Precision N Management
			1.14 Environmental Impacts of PA
		2 Conclusions
		References
Part III: Policy Measures for Adaptation: Climate Resilient Agriculture
	Irrigation Scheduling Under Crop Water Requirements: Simulation and Field Learning
		1 Introduction
		2 Field Capacity
		3 Management Allowed Deficit (MAD)
		4 Permanent Wilting Point
		5 Potential Soil Moisture Deficit (PSMD)
		6 Typical Soil Moisture Characteristics
		7 Soil Moisture Content (%)
		8 Soil Moisture Sensors
		9 Tensiometer
		10 Neutron Moisture Meter
		11 Determining the Amount of Water for Irrigation
			11.1 Performance Indicators
			11.2 Recovery Cost Ratio (RCR)
			11.3 Monetary Delivery Efficiency (MDE)
			11.4 Relative Water Cost (RWC)
			11.5 Comparative Farm Irrigation (CFI) Cost
			11.6 Benefit and Cost Ratio (BCR)
			11.7 Delivery Act Ratio (DAR)
			11.8 Permanent Wilting Point (PWP)
			11.9 At Sampled Moisture Content Before PWP
		12 Running Allowed Deficit (RAD)
			12.1 Potential Soil Moisture Deficit (PSMD)
		13 Irrigation and Decision Support System for Agrotechnology (DSSAT) (Fig. 7)
			13.1 Irrigation Management: DSSAT
			13.2 Soil Water: DSSAT
			13.3 Irrigation: DSSAT
		14 A Case Study of Stress Proportional to Field Capacity
		15 Improving Water Use Efficiency in Maize Crop Through Modelling Tools
		16 Maize Crop Modelling by Using CSM-CERES Models with Irrigation Application in Semiarid Conditions of Punjab, Pakistan
		17 Conclusion
		References
	Nutrient Management Under Changing Climate
		1 Introduction
			1.1 Plant Nutrient Classification
				1.1.1 Macronutrients
				1.1.2 Micronutrients
			1.2 Role of Nutrients in Plant Development
		2 Impacts of Changing Climatic Conditions on Agriculture
			2.1 Drought Stress
			2.2 Temperature Stress
			2.3 Soil Erosion
			2.4 Effect of Climate Change on Nutrient Dynamics
			2.5 Transformation in the Cropping Pattern and Sowing Date
			2.6 Unpredictable Rainfall Pattern and Effects on Growth and Yield
		3 Nutrient Management Under Climatic Variability
			3.1 Macronutrient Management
				3.1.1 Nitrogen
				3.1.2 Phosphorous
				3.1.3 Potassium
			3.2 Micronutrient Management
		4 Conclusion
		5 Future Perspectives
		References
	Modern Breeding Approaches for Climate Change
		1 Introduction
			1.1 Climate Resilience Agriculture: Mitigation and Adaptation
			1.2 Climate Change in Developing Countries: Need for Modern Breeding Technologies
		2 Crop Improvement from Classical Breeding to the Application of Biotechnology: A Climate Resilience Perspective
			2.1 Conventional Breeding
				2.1.1 Germplasm Assemblage and Population Improvement
				2.1.2 Limitations of Classical Breeding
			2.2 The Plant Genome Editing Era
				2.2.1 Citizen Resistance to Genetically Modified Organisms Risks Overshadowing the Contribution of Other Biotechnologies
		3 Evolution of Plant Breeding Strategies for Future-Generation Climate-Smart Crops
			3.1 Speed Breeding
			3.2 Next-Generation Breeding Strategies
			3.3 Fast-Forward Genomic-Assisted Breeding (GAB)
			3.4 Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWASs) for Stress Tolerance
			3.5 SNP-Based Marker
		4 Conclusion
		References
	Heat Stress Tolerance in Crop Plants: Physiological and Biochemical Approaches
		1 Global Temperature Rise and Its Relation to Heat Stress in Crop Plants
			1.1 Global Temperature Rise/Climatic Change
			1.2 Abiotic Stress in Plants
			1.3 Food Crops
			1.4 Importance of Food Crop Productivity to the World
		2 Heat Stress and Crop Plant Physiology and Biochemical Behavior
			2.1 Crop Plants’ Maximum and Minimum Tolerable Temperatures for Growth
			2.2 Heat Stress Effect on Crop Plants
				2.2.1 Physiological Changes
				2.2.2 Biochemical Changes
			2.3 Heat Stress and Crop Productivity
		3 Adaptations of Plant Crops to Heat Stress
			3.1 Classification of Plants on the Basis of Heat Tolerance
			3.2 Mechanisms of Heat Tolerance in Plant Crops
			3.3 Plant Physiological Response
				3.3.1 Plant Growth and Reproduction
				3.3.2 Leaf Rolling
				3.3.3 Leaf Senescence
				3.3.4 Pollen
				3.3.5 Seed Filling
				3.3.6 Stomatal Conductance
				3.3.7 Membrane Fluidity
			3.4 Plant Biochemical Behavior
				3.4.1 Ion Transporters
				3.4.2 Exogenous Protectants (Osmoprotectants, Phytohormones, Antioxidants)
				3.4.3 Transcriptional Control
				3.4.4 Antioxidants
				3.4.5 Heat Shock Proteins (HSPs)
				3.4.6 Metabolites
		4 Food Crop Engineering to Produce Heat-Stress-Tolerant Crop Plants
			4.1 Breeding
			4.2 Cultivars
		5 Conclusion
		References
	Crop Protection Under Climate Change: The Effect on Tri-trophic Relations Concerning Pest Control
		1 Introduction
		2 Warming Impacts on Insect Pests
			2.1 Warming Impact on Plant Diseases
		3 CO2 Impacts on Insect Pests
			3.1 CO2 Impact on Plant Pathogens and Diseases
		4 Precipitation Impacts on Insect Pests
		5 Effect of Moisture on Plant Diseases
		6 Insect-Plant Interactions in the Context of Agroecology
			6.1 Climate Change and Semiochemical-Based Tri-trophic Interactions
			6.2 Herbivore – Plant Population Asynchronization Under Changing Climate
			6.3 Effect of Climatic Conditions Changes on Vector-Borne Diseases
		7 Spatial and Temporal Adjustments in Insect Pests Due to Climate Change
		8 Climate Change-Associated Reduction in Pesticide Sensitivity
		9 Challenges and Opportunities in the Management Insect Pests in Climate Change
			9.1 Need for the Region-Based Research
			9.2 Response of Farmers to Pest Problems Due to Climate Change
			9.3 Severity of Climate Change in Developing Countries
			9.4 Mitigating Climate Change from Farm Level to Policies at Government Level
			9.5 International Collaborations
				9.5.1 Invasive Species Management
				9.5.2 Management of Migratory Insect Pests
			9.6 Disease Management Practices and Future Prospects
		10 Conclusion
		References
	Climate Change Effects on the Quality of Different Crop Plants and Coping Mechanisms
		1 Introduction
		2 Effect of Changing Climate on Agriculture
		3 Climatical Change and Cereal Crops Quality
			3.1 Impact of Changing Climate on the Quality of Oilseed Crops
			3.2 Impact of Changing Climate on the Quality of Cotton Crop
		4 Impact of Changing Climate on the Quality of Forage Crops
		5 Impact of Climate Change on the Quality of Horticultural Crops
		6 Impact of Changing Climate on the Quality of Sugar Crops
		7 Forests
		8 Livestock and Pastoral Systems
		9 Building Resilience at Landscape Level
		10 Managing Genetic Resources
		11 Enabling In-Farm and Off-Farm Diversification
		12 Developing Environmental Monitoring Systems
		13 Crop Modeling
		14 Conclusion
		References
	Application of Remote Sensing in Agriculture
		1 Introduction
		2 Crop Nutrients Monitoring
		3 Identification of Weeds and Their Management
			3.1 Procedures for Detection of Weed Image
			3.2 Application of UAV for Weed Identification
			3.3 Weed Discrimination by Multispectral Imagery
		4 Assessment of Insect Pest Infestation
			4.1 Studies on the Existence of Insects Through RS
			4.2 Application of GIS in Pest Management
				4.2.1 Insect Estimation Data and GIS
				4.2.2 Locust Observation at FAO
		5 Conclusions and Future Prospects
		References
	Mitigation of Climate Change Through Carbon Farming
		1 Introduction
		2 Climate Change in Developing Countries
		3 Stabilizing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
		4 Ways of Carbon Farming for Developing Countries
			4.1 Carbon Farming Through Agroforestry
		5 Soil Organic Carbon Stocks and Agroforestry
		6 Tree Biomass in Agriculture
		7 Biochar Role in C Sequestration
		8 Agricultural Soil Carbon Monitoring
		9 Conclusions
		References
	Use of Biochar for Biological Carbon Sequestration
		1 Introduction
		2 Causes of CO2 Emission
			2.1 Natural Emission
			2.2 Artificial Emission
		3 Impacts of CO2
			3.1 On Earth
			3.2 On Plants
			3.3 On Animals
			3.4 On Humans
		4 Biochar
		5 Biological Carbon Sequestration
		6 Biochar Use for Carbon Capture and Storage
			6.1 Methods for Reducing CO2 Emissions into the Atmosphere
		7 CO2 Sequestration
		8 CO2 Collection Via Artificial Means
		9 CO2 Capture Via Natural Means
		10 CO2 Sequestration
		11 Plants
		12 Bacteria
		13 Clostridium
		14 Proteobacterium
		15 Algae
		16 Fungi
		17 Yeast
		18 Prospects of Use of Biochar for Carbon Sequestration
		19 Soil Quality and Carbon Status as a Result of Fresh Crop Residues
		20 Effects of Residue Assimilation on Soil Active C Fraction
		21 Conclusions and Research Suggestions for the Future
		References
Index