Chemistry: A Molecular Approach (Second US Edition)

Front Cover
......Page 1
Title Page
......Page 2
Copyright Page......Page 3
Dedication/About the Author......Page 4
Brief Contents
......Page 5
CONTENTS......Page 6
Preface
......Page 20
CHAPTER 1 Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving......Page 39
1.1 Atoms and Molecules......Page 40
1.2 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge......Page 42
1.3 The Classification of Matter......Page 44
1.4 Physical and Chemical Changes and Physical and Chemical Properties......Page 48
1.5 Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and Chemical Change......Page 51
1.6 The Units of Measurement......Page 52
1.7 The Reliability of a Measurement......Page 59
1.8 Solving Chemical Problems......Page 66
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 73
EXERCISES......Page 74
CHAPTER 2 Atoms and Elements......Page 81
2.1 Imaging and Moving Individual Atoms......Page 82
2.3 Modern Atomic Theory and the Laws That led to It......Page 84
2.4 The Discovery of the Electron......Page 88
2.5 The Structure of the Atom......Page 90
2.6 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Atoms......Page 92
2.7 Finding Patterns: The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table......Page 97
2.8 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element's Atoms......Page 103
2.9 Molar Mass: Counting Atoms by Weighing Them......Page 105
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 110
EXERCISES......Page 112
3.1 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water......Page 117
3.2 Chemical Bonds......Page 119
3.3 Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models......Page 121
3.4 An Atomic-Level View of Elements and Compounds......Page 123
3.5 Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names......Page 126
3.6 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names......Page 132
3.7 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept
for Compounds......Page 136
3.8 Composition of Compounds......Page 139
3.9 Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data......Page 144
3.10 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations......Page 149
3.11 Organic Compounds......Page 153
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 156
EXERCISES......Page 159
CHAPTER 4 Chemical Quantities and Aqueous Reactions......Page 165
4.1 Global Warming and the Combustion of Fossil Fuels......Page 166
4.2 Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Carbon Dioxide?......Page 167
4.3 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield......Page 172
4.4 Solution Concentration and Solution Stoichiometry......Page 179
4.5 Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility......Page 185
4.6 Precipitation Reactions......Page 189
4.7 Representing Aqueous Reactions: Molecular, Ionic, and Complete Ionic Equations......Page 192
4.8 Acid - Base and Gas-Evolution Reactions......Page 194
4.9 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions......Page 201
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 208
EXERCISES......Page 210
CHAPTER 5 Gases......Page 217
5.1 Breathing: Putting Pressure to Work......Page 218
5.2 Pressure: The Result of Molecular Collisions......Page 219
5.3 The Simple Gas Laws: Boyle's Law, Charles's Law, and Avogadro's Law......Page 222
5.4 The Ideal Gas Law......Page 229
5.5 Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Molar Volume, Density, and Molar Mass of a Gas......Page 232
5.6 Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressures......Page 236
5.7 Gases in Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry Revisited......Page 242
5.8 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases......Page 245
5.9 Mean Free Path, Diffusion, and Effusion of Gases......Page 251
5.10 Real Gases: The Effects of Size and Intermolecular Forces......Page 253
5.11 Chemistry of the Atmosphere: Air Pollution and Ozone Depletion......Page 256
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 259
EXERCISES......Page 261
CHAPTER 6 Thermochemistry......Page 269
6.1 Chemical Hand Warmers......Page 270
6.2 The Nature of Energy: Key Definitions......Page 271
6.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics: There Is No Free Lunch......Page 273
6.4 Quantifying Heat and Work......Page 279
6.5 Measuring delta(E) for Chemical Reactions: Constant-Volume Calorimetry......Page 285
6.6 Enthalpy: The Heat Evolved in a Chemical Reaction at Constant Pressure......Page 288
6.7 Constant-Pressure Calorimetry: Measuring delta(H)rxn......Page 292
6.8 Relationships Involving delta(H)rxn......Page 294
6.9 Determining Enthalpies of Reaction from Standard Enthalpies of Formation......Page 296
6.10 Energy Use and the Environment......Page 302
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 306
EXERCISES......Page 308
CHAPTER 7 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom......Page 315
7.1 Quantum Mechanics: The Theory That Explains the Behavior of the Absolutely Small......Page 316
7.2 The Nature of Light......Page 317
7.3 Atomic Spectroscopy and the Bohr Model......Page 327
7.4 The Wave Nature of Matter: The de Broglie Wavelength, the Uncertainty Principle, and Indeterminacy......Page 330
7.5 Quantum Mechanics and the Atom......Page 336
7.6 The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals......Page 342
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 347
EXERCISES......Page 349
CHAPTER 8 Periodic Properties of the Elements......Page 353
8.1 Nerve Signal Transmission......Page 354
8.2 The Development of the Periodic Table......Page 355
8.3 Electron Configurations: How Electrons Occupy Orbitals......Page 356
8.4 Electron Configurations, Valence Electrons, and the Periodic Table......Page 364
8.5 The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical Model......Page 368
8.6 Periodic Trends in the Size of Atoms and Effective Nuclear Charge......Page 369
8.7 Ions: Electron Configurations, Magnetic Properties, Ionic Radii, and Ionization Energy......Page 373
8.8 Electron Affinities and Metallic Character......Page 382
8.9 Some Examples of Periodic Chemical Behavior: The Alkali Metals,the Halogens, and the Noble Gases......Page 386
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 390
EXERCISES......Page 392
CHAPTER 9 Chemical Bonding I: Lewis Theory
......Page 397
9.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs......Page 398
9.2 Types of Chemical Bonds......Page 399
9.4 Ionic Bonding: Lewis Structures and Lattice Energies......Page 401
9.5 Covalent Bonding: Lewis Structures......Page 408
9.6 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity......Page 411
9.7 lewis Structures of Molecular Compounds and Polyatomic Ions......Page 415
9.8 Resonance and Formal Charge......Page 417
9.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule: Odd-Electron Species, IncompleteOctets, and Expanded Octets......Page 421
9.10 Bond Energies and Bond Lengths......Page 425
9.11 Bonding in Metals: The Electron Sea Model......Page 429
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 431
EXERCISES......Page 432
CHAPTER 10 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Shapes, Valence Bond Theory, and Molecular Orbital Theory......Page 437
10.1 Artificial Sweeteners: Fooled by Molecular Shape......Page 438
10.2 VSEPR Theory: The Five Basic Shap es......Page 439
10.3 VSEPR Theory: The Effect of Lone Pairs......Page 443
10.4 VSEPR Theory: Predicting Molecular Geometries......Page 448
10.5 Molecular Shape and Polarity......Page 451
10.6 Valence Bond Theory: Orbital Overlap as a Chemical Bond......Page 456
10.7 Valence Bond Theory: Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals......Page 458
10.8 Molecular Orbital Theory: Electron Delocalization......Page 471
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 484
EXERCISES......Page 486
CHAPTER 11 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces......Page 493
11.1 Climbing Geckos and Intermolecular Forces......Page 494
11.2 Solids, liquids, and Gases: A Molecular Comparison......Page 495
11.3 Intermolecular Forces: The Forces That Hold Condensed States Together......Page 498
11.4 Intermolecular Forces in Action : Surface Tension, Viscosity, and Capillary Action......Page 507
11.5 Vaporization and Vapor Pressure......Page 509
11.6 Sublimation and Fusion......Page 519
11.7 Heating Curve for Water......Page 521
11.8 Phase Diagrams......Page 523
11.9 Water: An Extraordinary Substance......Page 526
11.10 Crystalline Solids: Determining Their Structure by X-Ray Crystallography......Page 528
11.11 Crystalline Solids: Unit Cells and Basic Structures......Page 530
11.12 Crystalline Solids: The Fundamental Types......Page 536
11.13 Crystalline Solids: Band Theory......Page 540
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 542
EXERCISES......Page 543
CHAPTER 12 Solutions......Page 551
12.1 Thirsty Solutions: Why You Shouldn't Drink Seawater......Page 552
12.2 Types of Solutions and Solubility......Page 553
12.3 Energetics of Solution Formation......Page 558
12.4 Solution Equilibrium and Factors Affecting Solubility......Page 562
12.5 Expressing Solution Concentration......Page 566
12.6 Colligative Properties: Vapor Pressure Lowering, Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation, and Osmotic Pressure......Page 574
12.7 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions......Page 586
12.8 Colloids......Page 589
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 592
EXERCISES......Page 594
CHAPTER 13 Chemical Kinetics......Page 601
13.1 Catching Lizards......Page 602
13.2 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction......Page 603
13.3 The Rate Law: The Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate......Page 608
13.4 The Integrated Rate Law: The Dependence of Concentration on Time......Page 612
13.5 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate......Page 620
13.6 Reaction Mechanisms......Page 627
13.7 Catalysis......Page 632
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 638
EXERCISES......Page 640
CHAPTER 14 Chemical Equilibrium......Page 651
14.1 Fetal Hemoglobin and Equilibrium......Page 652
14.2 The Concept of Dynamic Equilibrium......Page 654
14.3 The Equilibrium Constant (K)......Page 657
14.4 Expressing the Equilibrium Constant in Terms of Pressure......Page 661
14.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria: Reactions Involving Solids and Liquids......Page 664
14.6 Calculating the Equilibrium Constant from Measured Equilibrium Concentrations......Page 665
14.7 The Reaction Quotient Predicting the Direction of Change......Page 668
14.8 Finding Equilibrium Concentrations......Page 670
14.9 Le Chatelier's Principle: How a System at Equilibrium Responds to Disturbances......Page 680
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 687
EXERCISES......Page 689
CHAPTER 15 Acids and Bases......Page 697
15.1 Heartburn......Page 698
15.2 The Nature of Acids and Bases......Page 699
15.3 Definitions of Acids and Bases......Page 701
15.4 Acid Strength and the Acid Dissociation Constant (Ka )......Page 704
15.5 Autoionization of Water and pH......Page 707
15.6 Finding the (H 30+) and pH of Strong and Weak Acid Solutions......Page 712
15.7 Base Solutions......Page 721
15.8 The Acid-Base Properties of Ions and Salts......Page 724
15.9 Polyprotic Acids......Page 732
15.10 Acid Strength and Molecular Structure......Page 737
15.11 Lewis Acids and Bases......Page 739
15.12 Acid Rain......Page 740
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 742
EXERCISES......Page 744
CHAPTER 16 Aqueous Ionic Equilibrium......Page 751
16.1 The Danger of Antifreeze......Page 752
16.2 Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change......Page 753
16.3 Buffer Effectiveness: Buffer Range and Buffer Capacity......Page 764
16.4 Titrations and pH Curves......Page 768
16.5 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product Constant......Page 782
16.6 Precipitation......Page 788
16.7 Qualitative Chemical Analysis......Page 791
16.8 Complex lon Equilibria......Page 794
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 798
EXERCISES......Page 800
CHAPTER 17 Free Energy and Thermodynamics......Page 807
17.1 Nature's Heat Tax: You Can't Win and You Can't Break Even......Page 808
17.2 Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Processes......Page 810
17.3 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 812
17.4 Heat Transfer and Changes in the Entropy of the Surroundings......Page 819
17.5 Gibbs Free Energy......Page 823
17.6 Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating delta(S0)rxn......Page 827
17.7 Free Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating delta(G0)rxn......Page 831
17.8 Free Energy Changes for Nonstandard States: The Relationship between delta(G0)rxn and delta(G)rxn......Page 837
17.9 Free Energy and Equilibrium: Relating delta(G0)rxn to the Equilibrium Constant (K)......Page 840
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 843
EXERCISES......Page 845
CHAPTER 18  Electrochemistry......Page 853
18.1 Pulling the Plug on the Power Grid......Page 854
18.2 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations......Page 855
18.3 Voltaic (or Galvanic) Cells: Generating Electricity from Spontaneous Chemical Reactions......Page 858
18.4 Standard Electrode Potentials......Page 862
18.5 Cell Potential, Free Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant......Page 870
18.6 Cell Potential and Concentration......Page 874
18.7 Batteries: Using Chemistry to Generate Electricity......Page 879
18.8 Electrolysis: Driving Nonspontaneous Chemical Reactions with Electricity......Page 883
18.9 Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions......Page 891
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 894
EXERCISES......Page 896
CHAPTER 19 Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry......Page 903
19.1 Diagnosing Appendicitis......Page 904
19.2 The Discovery of Radioactivity......Page 905
19.3 Types of Radioactivity......Page 906
19.4 The Valley of Stability: Predicting the Type of Radioactivity......Page 911
19.5 Detecting Radioactivity......Page 913
19.6 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating......Page 914
19.7 The Discovery of Fission: The Atomic Bomb and Nuclear Power......Page 922
19.8 Converting Mass to Energy: Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy......Page 925
19.9 Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun......Page 928
19.10 Nuclear Transmutation and Transuranium Elements......Page 929
19.11 The Effects of Radiation on Life......Page 930
19.12 Radioactivity in Medicine and Other Applications......Page 933
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 935
EXERCISES......Page 937
CHAPTER 20 Organic Chemistry......Page 941
20.1 Fragrances and Odors......Page 942
20.2 Carbon: Why It Is Unique......Page 943
20.3 Hydrocarbons: Compounds Containing Only Carbon and Hydrogen......Page 945
20.4 Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons......Page 951
20.5 Alkenes and Alkynes......Page 955
20.6 Hydrocarbon Reactions......Page 960
20.7 Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 963
20.8 Functional Groups......Page 966
20.9 Alcohols......Page 967
20.10 Aldehydes and Ketones......Page 969
20.11 Carboxylic Acids and Esters......Page 972
20.12 Ethers......Page 974
20.13 Amines......Page 975
20.14 Polymers......Page 976
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 978
EXERCISES......Page 981
CHAPTER 21 Biochemistry......Page 991
21.1 Diabetes and the Synthesis of Human Insulin......Page 992
21.2 Lipids......Page 993
21.3 Carbohydrates......Page 998
21.4 Proteins and Amino Acids......Page 1002
21.5 Protein Structure......Page 1006
21.6 Nucleic Acids: Blueprints for Proteins......Page 1010
21.7 DNA Replication, the Double Helix, and Protein Synthesis......Page 1014
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 1017
EXERCISES......Page 1018
CHAPTER 22 Chemistry of the Nonmetals......Page 1025
22.1 Insulated Nanowires......Page 1026
22.2 The Main-Group Elements: Bonding and Properties......Page 1027
22.3 Silicates: The Most Abundant Matter in Earth's Crust......Page 1028
22.4 Boron and Its Remarkable Structures......Page 1033
22.5 Carbon, Carbides, and Carbonates......Page 1035
22.6 Nitrogen and Phosphorus: Essential Elements for Life......Page 1041
22.7 Oxygen......Page 1047
22.8 Sulfur: A Dangerous but Useful Element......Page 1049
22.9 Halogens: Reactive Elements with High Electronegativity......Page 1053
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 1057
EXERCISES......Page 1058
CHAPTER 23 Metals and Metallurgy......Page 1063
23.1 Vanadium: A Problem and an Opportunity......Page 1064
23.2 The General Properties and Natural Distribution of Metals......Page 1065
23.3 Metallurgical Processes......Page 1066
23.4 Metal Structures and Alloys......Page 1070
23.5 Sources, Properties, and Products of Some of the 3d Transition Metals......Page 1075
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 1080
EXERCISES......Page 1081
CHAPTER 24 Transition Metals and Coordination Compounds......Page 1085
24.1 The Colors of Rubies and Emeralds......Page 1086
24.2 Properties of Transition Metals......Page 1087
24.3 Coordination Compounds......Page 1091
24.4 Structure and Isomerization......Page 1096
24.5 Bonding in Coordination Compounds......Page 1100
24.6 Applications of Coordination Compounds......Page 1106
CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 1109
EXERCISES......Page 1110
Appendix I......Page 1114
Appendix II......Page 1120
Appendix III......Page 1129
Appendix IV......Page 1163
Glossary......Page 1180
Photo Credits......Page 1195
INDEX......Page 1197
Periodic Table of the Elements......Page 1225
List of Elements with Their Symbols and Atomic Masses......Page 1226
Conversion Factors and Relationships......Page 1227
Selected Key Equations......Page 1228