Carbon Dioxide Utilization to Sustainable Energy and Fuels (Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation)

Contents
1 Chemical Valorization of CO2
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 CO2-Derived Fuels and Chemicals
		2.1 Methane
		2.2 Methanol
		2.3 Dimethyl Ether
		2.4 Formic Acid
		2.5 Ethanol
		2.6 CO2-Fischer–Tropsch Liquid Fuels
		2.7 Carbon Monoxide—Syngas
	3 CO2 Chemically Derived Materials
		3.1 Polymers
		3.2 CO2-Derived Building Materials
	4 Conclusions
	References
2 Progress in Catalysts for CO2 Reforming
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Technologies for Capturing and Storing Carbon Dioxide
	3 Technologies for Using Carbon Dioxide
	4 Methane Dry Reforming Process
		4.1 Progress in Catalysts for Methane Dry Reforming (1928–1989)
		4.2 Progress in Catalysts for Methane Dry Reforming (1990–1999)
		4.3 Progress in Catalysts for Methane Dry Reforming (2000–2009)
		4.4 Progress in Catalysts for Methane Dry Reforming (2010–2019)
		4.5 Current Status in the Catalysts for Methane Dry Reforming
	5 Dry Reforming of Other Compounds
	6 Use of Steam or Oxygen in Dry Reforming of Methane and Other Compounds
	7 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Fueled with Biogas
	8 Commercialization of Dry Reforming Process
	9 Conclusions
	References
3 Fuel Generation from CO2
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Approaches for Directly Converting CO2 to Fuels
		2.1 Pure CO2 Decomposition Technology
		2.2 Reagent-Based CO2 Conversion Technology
			2.2.1 Dry Deformation of Methane Technology
			2.2.2 Catalytic Hydrogenation of CO2
	3 Biological CO2 Fixation for Fuels
		3.1 Thermochemical Conversion
			3.1.1 Torrefaction
			3.1.2 Pyrolysis
			3.1.3 Thermochemical Liquefaction
			3.1.4 Gasification
			3.1.5 Direct Combustion
		3.2 Biochemical Conversion
			3.2.1 Biodiesel
			3.2.2 Bioethanol
			3.2.3 Biomethane
			3.2.4 Biohydrogen
			3.2.5 Bioelectricity
			3.2.6 Volatile Organic Compounds
	4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
4 Thermodynamics of CO2 Conversion
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Carbon Dioxide Capture
	3 Carbon Dioxide Utilisations
	4 Thermodynamic Considerations
	5 Thermodynamics of CO2
		5.1 The Thermodynamic Attainable Region (AR)
		5.2 Using Hess’s Law to Transform the Extents to G-H AR @ 25˚C
		5.3 Increasing Temperature on G-H AR
	6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
5 Enzymatic CO2 Conversion
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
		1.1 CO2 as a Greenhouse Gas
		1.2 Carbon Capture, Storage, and Utilization
		1.3 CO2 as a Chemical Feedstock
		1.4 CO2 Conversion with Enzymes
	2 Natural Conversion of CO2 in Cells
	3 Enzymatic Conversion of CO2 in Cells
		3.1 Conversion of CO2 by a Single Enzyme (in vitro)
			3.1.1 Formate Dehydrogenase
			3.1.2 Carbonic Anhydrase
			3.1.3 Carbon Monoxide Dehydrogenase
			3.1.4 Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate Carboxylase/Oxygenase (RuBisCO)
		3.2 Conversion of CO2 by a Multi-Enzyme Cascade in vitro
		3.3 Other Ways (Photocatalytic CO2 Methanation)
	4 Industrial Applications
		4.1 Alcohols
		4.2 Organic Acids
		4.3 Terpenoids
		4.4 Fatty Acids
		4.5 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
		4.6 Calcium Carbonate
	5 Summary and Future Prospects
	References
6 Electrochemical CO2 Conversion
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Electrochemical CO2 Conversion
		2.1 Fundamentals of the Process
		2.2 Variants of Electrochemical Conversion of CO2
			2.2.1 Aqueous Electrolytes
			2.2.2 Non-Aqueous Electrolytes
			2.2.3 Solid Oxide Electrolytes
			2.2.4 Molten Salt Electrolytes
	3 Electrochemical CO2 Conversion from Molten Salts
		3.1 Present State of Electrochemical Reduction of CO2in Molten Salts for the Production of Solid-Phase Carbonaceous Nanomaterials
		3.2 Direct Electrochemical Reduction of CO2 in Chloride Melts
		3.3 Indirect Electrochemical Reduction of CO2 in Molten Salts
		3.4 The Mechanisms of Electrode Reactions Occurring at the Cathode and Anode
		3.5 Prospects for CO2 Conversion in Molten Salts
	4 Conclusions
	References
7 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Mediated Organic Transformations
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Applications of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide
		2.1 Hydrogenation Reactions
		2.2 Asymmetric Hydrogenation Reactions
		2.3 Diels–Alder Reaction
		2.4 Coupling Reaction
		2.5 Oxidation Reaction
		2.6 Baeyer–Villiger Oxidation Reaction
		2.7 Iodination Reaction
		2.8 Polymerization Reaction
		2.9 Carbonylation Reaction
			2.9.1 Acetalization Reaction
			2.9.2 Olefin Metathesis Reaction
			2.9.3 Synthesis of heterocycles
				Synthesis of α-alkylidene Cyclic Carbonates
				Synthesis of 4-Methyleneoxazolidin-2-Ones
				Synthesis of 5-Alkylidene-1, 3-Oxazolidin-2-Ones
				Synthesis of 6-Phenyl-3a, 4-Dihydro-1H-Cyclopenta[C]furan-5(3H)-One
				Synthesis of 3, 4, 5, 6-Tetraethyl-2H-Pyran-2-One
	3 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
8 Theoretical Approaches to CO2 Transformations
	Abstract
	1 Carbon Dioxide Properties
	2 CO2 Transformation as an Undeniable Necessity
	3 CO2 Activation
		3.1 Methodologies of CO2 Activation
	4 Theoretical Insight of CO2 Transformation
		4.1 The Theoretical Approach in CO2 Conversion to Value-Added Chemicals
			4.1.1 Carbon Monoxide
			4.1.2 Methane
			4.1.3 Methanol
			4.1.4 Formic Acid
			4.1.5 Heterocycles
				Cyclic Carbonates
				Cyclic Carbamate
				Quiznazoline-2,4(1H,3H)-Dione
			4.1.6 Summary and Outlook
	5 Theoretical Designing of Novel Catalysts Based on DFT Studies
		5.1 Theoretical Designing: Problems and Opportunities
	6 Conclusion
	References
9 Carbon Dioxide Conversion Methods
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Molecular Structure of CO2
	3 Thermo-Kinetics of CO2 Conversion
	4 CO2 Conversion Methods and Products
		4.1 Fischer–Tropsch Gas-to-Liquid (GTL)
		4.2 Mineralization
		4.3 Chemical Looping Dry Reforming
		4.4 Enzymatic Conversion
		4.5 Photocatalytic and Photo-Electrochemical Conversion
		4.6 Thermo-Chemical Conversion
		4.7 Hydrogenation
		4.8 Reforming
	5 Economic Assessment of CO2Alteration to Valuable Products
		5.1 Syngas
		5.2 Methanol
		5.3 Formic Acid
		5.4 Urea
		5.5 Dimethyl Carbonate (DMC)
	6 Conclusions and Future Perspective
	Acknowledgements
	References
10 Closing the Carbon Cycle
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Methods to Capture CO2
	3 CO2 Capture Technologies
	4 CO2 Capture from the Air
	5 Biomass and Waste-Based Chemicals
	6 Advantages of Biomass-Based Chemicals
	7 Replacement of Carbon-Based Energy Resources
	8 Biomass Energy
	9 Wind Energy
	10 Solar Energy
	11 Ocean Energy
	12 Geothermal Energy
	13 Hydrothermal Energy
	14 Conclusions
	References
11 Carbon Dioxide Utilization to Energy and Fuel: Hydrothermal CO2 Conversion
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Hydrothermal CO2 Conversion
		2.1 Metals and Catalysts as Reductant
		2.2 Organic Wastes as Reductant
		2.3 Inorganic Wastes as Reductant
		2.4 Biomass as Reductant
	3 Conclusion
	References
12 Ethylenediamine–Carbonic Anhydrase Complex for CO2 Sequestration
	1 Introduction
	2 An Overview of Carbonic Anhydrase (CA)
	3 Mechanism of Action for Biocarbonate Formation
	4 Historical Background of Carbonic Anhydrase
	5 Sources of Carbonic Anhydrase
	6 Carbonic Anhydrase in Microorganism
		6.1 Micrococcus Lylae, Micrococcus Luteus, and Pseudomonas Fragi
		6.2 Bacillus Subtilis and Citrobacter Freundii
		6.3 Neisseria Gonorrhoeae
		6.4 Helicobacter Pylori
	7 Plant Carbonic Anhydrase
	8 Overview of CO2
	9 Sources of Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
	10 Effect of Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
	11 Carbon Dioxide Capturing
	12 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Sequestration
	13 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Sequestration by Carbonic Anhydrase
	14 Separation System for CO2 Sequestration
	15 Cryogenic Separation
	16 Membrane Separation
	17 Absorption
	18 Adsorption
	19 Bioreactors for CO2 Sequestration
	20 Carbonic Anhydrase Immobilization
	21 Ethylenediamine for Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Capturing
	22 CO2 Capturing and Sequestration with Ethylenediamine–Carbonic Anhydrase Complex
	23 CO2 Capturing and Sequestration Design and Optimization: Challenges and Future Prospects
	24 Conclusion
	References
13 Green Pathway of CO2 Capture
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Molecular Structure of Carbon Dioxide
	3 CO2 Capture System
		3.1 Post-Combustion System
		3.2 Pre-Combustion System
		3.3 Oxy-Fuel Combustion System
	4 Absorption Technology
		4.1 Green Absorption with Ionic Liquids
			4.1.1 Properties and Uses of Ionic Liquids
			4.1.2 CO2 Solubility in PILs
			4.1.3 CO2 Absorption in PILs with Carboxylate Anion
		4.2 Reaction Mechanism Involved in CO2-Absorption
	5 Adsorption Technology
		5.1 Organic Adsorbents
			5.1.1 Activated Charcoal
			5.1.2 Biochar
			5.1.3 Metal–Organic Frameworks (MOFs)
		5.2 Other CO2 Adsorbents
			5.2.1 Metal Oxide-Based Absorbents
			5.2.2 Zeolites
		5.3 Biological Processes of CO2Sequestration
			5.3.1 Carbon Utilization by Forest and Agricultural Management
			5.3.2 Ocean Fertilization
			5.3.3 CO2 Capture by Microalgae
		5.4 Electrochemical Ways for CO2 Capture
	6 Conclusion
	References
14 Carbon Derivatives from CO2
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Artificial Photoreduction
	3 Electrochemical Reduction
	4 Hydrogenation
	5 Synthesis of Organic Carbonates
	6 Reforming
	7 Photocatalytic Reduction of CO2 with Water
	8 Biological Fixation
	9 Conclusions
	References
15 Catalysis for CO2 Conversion; Perovskite Based Catalysts
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Perovskite for CO2 Reforming of Methane (CRM)
		2.1 Combined Reforming for Methane
		2.2 “A”-Site Substituted Perovskite Catalyst for CRM
		2.3 “B”-Site Substituted Perovskite Catalyst for CRM
		2.4 Supported Perovskite for CRM
		2.5 Promoted Perovskite Catalyst for CRM
		2.6 Alkaline Earth Metals Perovskite for CRM
	3 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
16 Carbon Dioxide Conversion to Useful Chemicals and its Thermodynamics
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Thermodynamic of CO2 Hydrogenation to CH4
		2.1 Low-Pressure CO2 Methanation Enhanced by Sorption
		2.2 Catalytic CO2 Methanation
	3 Thermodynamics of CO2 DRM
	4 Thermodynamics of CO2 Hydrogenation for MEOH and DME Synthesis
	5 Thermodynamics of CO2 Hydrogenation for EtOH Synthesis
	6 Conclusion
	Acknowledegments
	References
17 Carbon Dioxide-Based Green Solvents
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Strategic Organic Solvents Replacement
	3 Physical Properties of CO2
	4 CO2 as a Solvent
	5 Advantages of CO2
		5.1 Environmental and Safety Advantages of CO2 in Chemical Processes
		5.2 CO2 Cannot be Oxidized
		5.3 CO2 is an Aprotic Solvent
		5.4 CO2 is Immune to Free Radical Chemistry
		5.5 CO2 is Miscible with Gases
		5.6 CO2 Exhibits Solvent Properties that Allow Miscibility with Both Fluorous and Organic Materials
		5.7 CO2 Exhibits a Liquid Viscosity Only 1/10 that of Water
	6 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide
		6.1 Chemical Reaction in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide
			6.1.1 Hydroformylation and Hydrogenation
			6.1.2 Biocatalysis
			6.1.3 Oxidation
	7 Polymerization and Polymer Processes
		7.1 CO2 as a Solvent for Polymer Systems
		7.2 Benefits of Use of Supercritical CO2 as a Green Reaction Medium
		7.3 Improved Reaction Rates
		7.4 Carbon Dioxide as a C1-Building Block for Chemicals
	8 Application of Carbon Dioxide Solvent in a Biorefinery
		8.1 CO2 and Biorefinery
		8.2 Extraction
		8.3 Fractionation and Refinement
	9 Conclusion
	References
18 State-Of-The-Art Overview of CO2 Conversions
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Carbon Dioxide Conversion to Chemicals
	3 Carbon Dioxide Conversion to Fuels
	4 Carbon Dioxide Conversion to Concrete Building Materials
	5 Carbon Dioxide for Mineral Carbonation
	6 Carbon Dioxide for Oil and Methane Recovery
	7 Carbon Dioxide for Horticulture and Microalgae Production
	8 Carbon Dioxide for Direct Use
	9 Conclusions
	References