Biofertilizers for Sustainable Soil Management

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Editor Biographies
List of Contributors
Acknowledgements
1 Endophytic Microbes: Deciphering Their Role and Mechanism to Mitigate Abiotic Stresses in Plants as an Eco-Friendly Tool
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Ecology of the Microbiome
	1.3 Reference Environment for Plant–microbe Interactions
		1.3.1 Plant–microbe Interactions in the Rhizosphere
	1.4 Role of Bacteria in Salinity Tolerance
	1.5 Drought Stress
	1.6 Heavy Metal Stress
	1.7 Conclusion
	References
2 Legacy Phosphorus: Tracking Budget, Vulnerability, and Mobility to Ensure Sustainable Management in the Agricultural System
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Phosphorus Cycle
	2.3 Global Phosphorus Reserves and Geological Variations
	2.4 Phosphorus Budget and Vulnerability
	2.5 The Phosphorus Balance at the Farm Level and Fertilization
	2.6 Factors Affecting Phosphorus Use Efficiency (PUE)
		2.6.1 Role of P Source and Soil Characteristics in Mobility and Bioavailability of P to Soil
		2.6.2 Soil P Transformation and Mobilization
		2.6.3 Organic Matter (Animal Manure, Crop Residues, and Biochar)
		2.6.4 Organic Acids (Humic Acid, Lignin, Etc.)
		2.6.5 Diversity of Bio-Inoculants and Bio-Fertilizers
	2.7 Bio-Fertilizers
	2.8 Zeolites
	2.9 Conclusion
	References
3 Bio-Fertilizers for Improving Micronutrient Availability
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Bio-Fertilizers
	3.3 Need for Bio-Fertilizers
	3.4 Types
		3.4.1 Nitrogen Fixers
			3.4.1.1 Rhizobium
			3.4.1.2 Azospirillum
			3.4.1.3 Azotobacter
			3.4.1.4 Blue Green Algae
		3.4.2 Mycorrhiza
	3.5 Impacts of Bio-Fertilizers On Agriculture
	3.6 Applications of Bio-Fertilizers
		3.6.1 Seed Treatment
		3.6.2 Seedling Root Dipping
		3.6.3 Soil Application
	3.7 Environmental Stress and Bio-Fertilizers
	3.8 Bio-Fertilizers in the Ecosystem
	3.9 Advantages of Bio-Fertilizers
	3.10 Disadvantages of Bio-Fertilizers
	3.11 Bio-Fertilizers: A Way Towards Sustainability
	3.12 Constraints in Bio-Fertilizer Technology
	3.13 Bio-Fertilizer Strategies
	3.14 Conclusion
	References
4 Role of Plant Bio-Stimulants and Their Classification
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Major Classification of Bio-Stimulants
		4.2.1 Effect of HS On Soil
		4.2.2 Effect of HS On Plant Physiology
	4.3 Protein Hydrolysate
		4.3.1 Classification of Protein Hydrolysates (PHs)
		4.3.2 Effect of Protein Hydrolysates (PHs)
			4.3.2.1 Direct Effect of Protein Hydrolysates (PHs)
			4.3.2.2 Indirect Effect of Protein Hydrolysates (PHs)
	4.4 Seaweed Extracts
		4.4.1 Application of Seaweeds
		4.4.2 Microalgae
			4.4.2.1 Activity of Microalgae as Bio-Stimulants
	4.5 Plant-Derived Smoke
	4.6 Chitin and Chitosan Derivatives
		4.6.1 Chitin (CH)-Based Polymers
			4.6.1.1 Chitin as a Bio-Stimulant
			4.6.1.2 Bio-Stimulatory Effect of Chitin in Vegetables (Table 4.1)
		4.6.2 Chitosan (CHT)-Based Polymer
			4.6.2.1 Chitosan as a Bio-Stimulant
			4.6.2.2 Bio-Stimulatory Effect of Chitosan in Vegetables (Table 4.2)
	4.7 Beneficial Microbes as Bio-Stimulants
		4.7.1 Beneficial Fungi
		4.7.2 Beneficial Bacteria
	4.8 Inorganic Compounds
	4.9 Conclusion
	References
5 Approaches for Using Bio-Fertilizers as a Substitute for Chemical Fertilizers to Improve Soil Health and Crop Yields in Pakistan
	5.1 Introduction
		5.1.1 Current Fertility Status of Pakistani Soils
	5.2 Bio-Fertilizers
		5.2.1 Types of Bio-Fertilizers
		5.2.2 Phosphate-Solubilizing Microbe Bio-Fertilizers (PSBs)
		5.2.3 Rhizobium Bio-Fertilizers
		5.2.4 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Bio-Fertilizers
		5.2.5 Azotobacter Bio-Fertilizers
		5.2.6 Azospirillum Bio-Fertilizers
		5.2.7 Azolla and Blue-Green Algae Bio-Fertilizers
		5.2.8 Silicon-Solubilizing Microbe Bio-Fertilizers
	5.3 Bio-Fertilizer Effect On Qualitative and Quantitative Attributes: A Case Study of Cucumber
	5.4 Market Characteristics Needed for the Release of Bio-Fertilizer
		5.4.1 Availability
		5.4.2 Solubility and Mode of Action
		5.4.3 Stability of Storage
		5.4.4 Effectiveness
	5.5 Pakistan and Bio-Fertilizers
		5.5.1 History of Bio-Fertilizers in Pakistan
		5.5.2 Bio-Fertilizer Research and Development in Pakistan
		5.5.3 AARI (Ayyub Agricultural Research Institute), Faisalabad
		5.5.4 NIAB (Nuclear Institute of Agriculture and Biology) and NIBGE (National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering), Faisalabad
		5.5.5 NARC (National Agricultural Research Centre), Islamabad
		5.5.6 ISES (Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences), University of Agriculture, Faisalabad
		5.5.7 NFRDF (Nature Farming Research and Development Foundation)
		5.5.8 Bio-Fertilizer Study in Higher Education Institutes
	5.6 Problems in Mass Production and Commercialization of Bio-Fertilizers in Pakistan
	5.7 Future Scenarios and Recommendations
	5.8 Conclusions
	References
6 Phosphate-Mobilizing Mycorrhizal-Based Bio-Fertilizers
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Classification of Bio-Fertilizers
	6.3 Importance of Bio-Fertilizers in Agriculture
	6.4 Limitations of Using Bio-Fertilizers
	6.5 Contribution of AMF in Nutrient Uptake
	6.6 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Mechanism for Phosphorus in Soil
	6.7 Commercially Available Mycorrhizal Bio-Fertilizers
		6.7.1 Oregonism XL
		6.7.2 Great White
		6.7.3 Myco Madness
		6.7.4 Mycorrhizae (Soluble)
		6.7.5 MycoStim
		6.7.6 MYKOS
		6.7.7 Piranha
		6.7.8 Plant Success (3-1-2)
		6.7.9 Root Maximizer
		6.7.10 Root Rally (0-3-0)
		6.7.11 Rooters
		6.7.12 SubCulture-M
		6.7.13 White Widow
		6.7.14 ZHO
	References
7 Quality Standards for Production and Marketing of Biofertilizers
	7.1 Background to Biofertilizers
	7.2 Types of Biofertilizers
	7.3 Production Processes for Biofertilizers
	7.4 Biofertilizer Production Protocols
	7.5 Prevention of Contamination
	7.6 Ways to Improve Production Systems
	7.7 Limitations in Marketing
		7.7.1 Edaphic and Environmental Conditions
		7.7.2 Plant-Related Factors
		7.7.3 Inoculant-Related Factors
	7.8 Strategies to Improve the Marketing Process
	7.9 Conclusions and Recommendations
	References
8 Limitations of Using Biofertilizers as an Alternative to Chemical Fertilizers
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Advantages of Biofertilizers
	8.3 Sources of Biofertilizers
		8.3.1 Nitrogen-Based Biofertilizer
		8.3.2 Phosphorus-Based Biofertilizer
		8.3.3 Compost-Based Biofertilizer
	8.4 Crop Response to Biofertilizer
	8.5 Response of Soil Fertility to Biofertilizer
	8.6 Limitations of Biofertilizers
		8.6.1 Agri-Climatic Conditions
		8.6.2 Inconsistent Nature
		8.6.3 Formulation and Storage Problems
		8.6.4 Nutrient Availability Constraints
		8.6.5 Extension and Market Constraints
		8.6.6 Farmer Awareness
	8.7 Future Prospects for Biofertilizers
	References
9 Phosphorus-Solubilizing Bio-Fertilizers
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Phosphorus-Solubilizing Microorganisms (PSMs)
	9.3 Mechanism and Processes of Inorganic P-Solubilization By PSMs
		9.3.1 Non-Specific Acid Phosphatases (NSAPs)
		9.3.2 Phytases
		9.3.3 PSM-Derived P Desorption From Clay Minerals
		9.3.4 Siderphore Production
		9.3.5 Solubilization Via Exopolysaccharides (EPS)
	9.4 Factors Responsible for P-Solubilization
		9.4.1 Temperature
		9.4.2 Soil PH
		9.4.3 Chelation
		9.4.4 Mineralization
	References
10 Potential Applications of Algae-Based Bio-Fertilizers
	10.1 Alternative Fertilizer Sources: A Need of the Day
	10.2 Introduction of Algae
	10.3 Potential Applications of Algae
	10.4 Application of Algae-Based Bio-Fertilizers in Agriculture
	10.5 Industrial Applications of Algae
	10.6 Application of Algal Bio-Fertilizer
	10.7 Slow-Release Bio-Fertilizers
	10.8 Cyanobacteria Nitrogen Fixation
	10.9 Liquid Bio-Fertilizers
	10.10 Algae-Based Bio-Fertilizers
		10.10.1 Soil Fertility
		10.10.2 Nitrogen Fixation
		10.10.3 Production of Plant Growth Stimulants
		10.10.4 Bio-Pesticidal Substances
		10.10.5 Algal Toleration and Mutation
			10.10.5.1 Tolerance to Extreme Environmental Conditions
			10.10.5.2 Mutation of Algae for Better Bio-Fertilizers
			10.10.5.3 Large-Scale Algal Growth
	10.11 Formulation of Algal Bio-Fertilizers
	10.12 Challenges and Measures for Commercialization
		10.12.1 New Pollutant Factors Discovered in Wastewater
		10.12.2 High Cost of Algal Biomass
		10.12.3 Contamination of Algal Biomass
		10.12.4 Water Consumption and Water Loss
		10.12.5 Potential Threats of Cyanobacteria in the Environment
	10.13 Conclusion
	References
11 Ectomycorrhizal Fungi: Role as Bio-Fertilizers in Forestry
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Analysing the Diversity of Ectomycorrhizal Fungi in Forest Ecosystems
	11.3 Selection of ECMF for Sustainable Development
	11.4 Ecological Functions of ECMF
	11.5 Evaluation of ECM Fungi
	11.6 ECMF and Forestry
		11.6.1 Applications of ECMF in Forest Nurseries
		11.6.2 Application of ECMF in Forest Management
		11.6.3 Role of Mycorrhizal Networks in Functioning of a Forest Ecosystem
		11.6.4 Impacts of the Interaction Between CMNs and Trees
		11.6.5 Services of CMNs in the Composition and Functioning of Forest Plant Communities
	11.7 Conclusion
	References
12 Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria/Pseudomonas as a Biofertilizer
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Rhizobacteria That Promote Plant Growth
		12.2.1 Properties of Perfect PGPR
	12.3 What Are Biofertilizers and How Do They Work?
		12.3.1 Advantages of Biofertilizers
		12.3.2 Pseudomonas as a Biofertilizer
	12.4 Mechanisms of Action of the Pseudomonas Biofertilizer
		12.4.1 Solubilization of Phosphate
		12.4.2 Siderophore Biosynthesis
		12.4.3 Production of Phytohormones
			12.4.3.1 Phytohormones
	12.5 Use of PGPRs as Biofertilizers: Guidelines and Precautions
	12.6 Challenges in Biofertilizers
	12.7 Current Challenges Due to Pseudomonas Biofertilizers
	References
13 Nitrogen-Fixing Biofertilizers
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Biofertilizers: Mechanisms and Application
	13.3 Quality Control and Guidelines for Biofertilizers
	13.4 Major Mechanisms in Biofertilizers
	13.5 Microbial Biofertilizers: Types, Applications, and Current Difficulties For Economical Rural Production
	13.6 Production Innovation, Properties, and Quality Administration of Biofertilizers
	13.7 Multilegume Biofertilizers
	13.8 Biofertilizers in Agribusiness
	13.9 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
14 Status of Research and Applications of Bio-Fertilizers: Global Scenario
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Using Bio-Based Products
	14.3 N-Fixing Inoculants as Bio-Fertilizers
		14.3.1 Bio-Fertilizers in Liquid Form
		14.3.2 Bioengineered Microbes
		14.3.3 Potassium-Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB)
		14.3.4 Phosphate-Solubilizing Bacteria (Ph.SB)
		14.3.5 Mycorrhiza
		14.3.6 Blue-Green Algae (BGA)
		14.3.7 Azolla
		14.3.8 Acetobacter
		14.3.9 Azospirillum
		14.3.10 Herbspirillum
		14.3.11 Azotobacter
		14.3.12 Rhizobium
	14.4 Plant and Microorganism Interaction Mechanism
	14.5 Applications and Types of Bio-Fertilizers
	14.6 Market For Bio-Fertilizers
	14.7 Limits of Bio-Fertilizer Promotion (Table 14.1)
		14.7.1 Limited Resources
		14.7.2 Market Restrictions
		14.7.3 Production Limitations
		14.7.4 Constraints in the Field
		14.7.5 Technical Limitations
	14.8 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
15 Bio-Fertilizer Effects On Plant-Parasitic Nematodes
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Artificial Fertilizers Vs. Bio-Fertilizers Vs. Organic Fertilizers
	15.3 Importance of Bio-Fertilizers
	15.4 Plant-Parasitic Nematodes (PPNs)
	15.5 Classification of PPNs
	15.6 Attack Mechanism of PPNs
	15.7 Control Strategies for PPNs
	15.8 Microorganisms as Bio-Fertilizers
	15.9 Fungi as Bio-Fertilizers Against PPNs
	15.10 Bacteria as Bio-Fertilizers Against PPNs
		15.10.1 Effects of Some Bacterial Bio-Fertilizers On the Root-Knot Nematode, Meloidogyne Incognita Infecting Some Vegetable Crops
		15.10.2 Effects of Some Bacterial Bio-Fertilizers On the Citrus Nematode, Tylenchulus Semipenetrans Infesting Citrus Trees
		15.10.3 Effects of Some Commercial Bio-Fertilizers and Nutrients On the Root-Knot Nematode, M. Incognita Infesting Some Field and Vegetable Crops
	15.11 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
Index