Biocontrol Agents: Entomopathogenic and Slug Parasitic Nematodes

Cover
Biocontrol Agents: Entomopathogenic and Slug Parasitic Nematodes
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
Preface
Part I: Beneficial Nematodes and Crop Protection
	1: Beneficial Nematodes in Agroecosystems: A Global Perspective
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Historical Background
		1.3 Nematodes and Their Beneficial Groups
			1.3.1 Entomopathogenic nematodes
			1.3.2 Slug parasitic nematodes
			1.3.3 Entomophilic nematodes
				Deladenus siricidicola (= Beddingia siricidicola) (Tylenchida, Neotylenchidae)
				Thripinema
				Mermithid nematodes
			1.3.4 Predatory nematodes
			1.3.5 Fungal-feeding nematodes
		1.4 Major Impediments and Possible Solutions Concerning the Expansion of Nematode Use
			1.4.1 Nematode market within the confines of product cost and availability
			1.4.2 Suboptimum ease of use and efficacy
			1.4.3 Limited spatial modelling to predict nematodes’ persistence and fates
			1.4.4 Most growers are unaware of their use, especially in developing countries
			1.4.5 Possible solutions concerning the expansion of nematode use
		1.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects
		Acknowledgements
		References
	2: Beneficial Nematodes and the Changing Scope of Crop Protection
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Neonicotinoid Pesticides: An Example
		2.3 A Sea Change in Crop Protection
		2.4 The Difficult Rise of Biopesticides
		2.5 Commercial Use of Entomopathogenic and Slug Parasitic Nematodes
			2.5.1 Production
			2.5.2 Application
			2.5.3 Efficacy
			2.5.4 Use of entomopathogenic and slug parasitic nematodes worldwide
		Conclusions
		Acknowledgements
		References
Part II: Entomopathogenic Nematodes – Morphology, Taxonomy, Biology and Diversity
	3: Entomopathogenic Nematodes of the Families Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae: Morphology and Taxonomy
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Entomopathogenic Nematode Survey: Collection of Soil Samples and Nematode Strains
		3.3 Contemporary Situation in Entomopathogenic Nematode Taxonomy
		3.4 Classification
		3.5 Heterorhabditid Morphology
		3.6 Heterorhabditid Taxonomy
		3.7 Steinernematid Morphology
		3.8 Steinernematid Taxonomy
		3.9 Identification Procedure
		3.10 Molecular Approaches and their Application in Nematode Taxonomy
			3.10.1 Molecular tools
			3.10.2 Target regions
		3.11 Conclusions and Future Prospects
		Acknowledgements
		References
	4: Entomopathogenic Nematodes: General Biology and Behaviour
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Entomopathogenic Nematode–Bacteria Symbiosis
			4.2.1 Mutualism
			4.2.2 Colonization process
			4.2.3 Life cycle
			4.2.4 Pathogenicity
			4.2.5 Importance of bacterial symbionts
		4.3 Survival Biology
			4.3.1 Cold tolerance
			4.3.2 Heat tolerance
			4.3.3 Desiccation tolerance
			4.3.4 Endotokia matricida
		4.4 Behaviour
			4.4.1 Foraging behaviour
				Ambusher
				Cruiser
				Intermediate
			4.4.2 Host recognition
			4.4.3 Response of infective juveniles to insects
		4.5 Conclusion
		4.6 Acknowledgements
		References
	5: Entomopathogenic Nematodes: Ecology, Diversity and Geographical Distribution
		5.1
Introduction
		5.2
Ecology
			5.2.1
Host cues and attraction
			5.2.2
Survival
			5.2.3
Persistence in environment
			5.2.4
Non-target effects
			5.2.5
Mulch
			5.2.6
Tritrophic interaction
			5.2.7
Habitat quality
			5.2.8
Soil type and texture
			5.2.9
Temperature effect
			5.2.10
Soil moisture
			5.2.11
Osmotic stress
			5.2.12
Pesticides, fertilizers and amendments
			5.2.13
UV protectants
			5.2.14
Other agents
			5.2.15
Interspecific interactions
			5.2.16
Vertical movement
			5.2.17
pH
		5.3
Biodiversity
			5.3.1
Classical studies
			5.3.2
Molecular characterization
		5.4
Geographical Distribution
		5.5
Genetic Diversity
			5.5.1
Qualitative and quantitative composition
		5.6
Conclusion
		Acknowledgements
		References
	6: Molecular Systematics and Phylogenetic Reconstruction of Steinernema and Heterorhabditis
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Molecular Techniques for Entomopathogenic Nematode Identification
			6.2.1 Routine molecular methods
			6.2.2 Genes committed for molecular identification of entomopathogenic nematodes
			6.2.3 DNA barcoding
			6.2.4 Quantitative PCR
			6.2.5 Sequencing technologies
			6.2.6 Phylogenesis
		6.3 Conclusions and Future Prospects
		Acknowledgements
		References
Part III: Entomopathogenic Nematodes and Their Symbiotic Bacteria Against Crop Insect Pests
	7: Efficacy of Entomopathogenic Nematodes Against Lepidopteran Insect Pests
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Examples of Efficacy of Entomopathogenic Nematodes against Lepidopteran Insects in Different Habitats
			7.2.1 Soil habitat
			7.2.2 Cryptic habitats
			7.2.3 Foliar habitat
		7.3 Case Studies
			7.3.1 The black cutworm Agrotis ipsilon (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
			7.3.2 The corn earworm Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
			7.3.3 The leopard moth borer, Zeuzera pyrina (Lepidoptera: Cossidae)
			7.3.4 The codling moth, Cydia pomonella L. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)
			7.3.5 Other fruit tree borers
		7.4 Conclusion
		Acknowledgement
		References
	8: Efficacy of Entomopathogenic Nematodes Against Coleopteran Pests
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Entomopathogenic Nematodes for the Control of White Grubs
		8.3 Entomopathogenic Nematodes for the Control of Weevils
			8.3.1 Black vine weevil ( Otiorhynchus sulcatus Fabricius)
			8.3.2 Citrus root weevil ( Diaprepes abbreviates L.)
			8.3.3 Red palm weevil ( Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier)
			8.3.4 Annual bluegrass weevil ( Listronotus maculicollis Dietz)
			8.3.5 Bluegrass billbug ( Sphenophorus parvulus Gyllenhal)
		8.4 Induced Defence Mechanism
		8.5 Factors Decreasing the Efficacy of Entomopathogenic Nematodes
			8.5.1 Biotic factors
			8.5.2 Abiotic factors
		8.6 Integrated Management of Coleopteran Pests
		8.7 Selective Breeding of Entomopathogenic Nematodes for Insect Pest Control
		8.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects
		Acknowledgements
		References
	9: Efficacy of Entomopathogenic Nematodes against Dipteran Pests
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 General Biology and Characteristics of Dipterans
		9.3 General Control Methods of Dipterans
			9.3.1 Cultural control
			9.3.2 Mechanical/physical control
			9.3.3 Genetic control
			9.3.4 Biological control
			9.3.5 Chemical control
		9.4 Dipteran Habitats Targeted by Entomopathogenic Nematodes
			9.4.1 Subterranean habitats
			9.4.2 Soil surface habitats
			9.4.3 Foliar application
			9.4.4 Cryptic habitats
		9.5 Factors Affecting the Success/Failure of Entomopathogenic Nematodes
			9.5.1 Success factors of entomopathogenic nematodes
			9.5.2 Failure factors of entomopathogenic nematodes
		9.6 Entomopathogenic Nematodes Against Dipteran Insect Pests
			9.6.1 Entomopathogenic nematodes against leaf miners, Liriomyza spp. (Diptera: Agromyzidae)
			9.6.2 Entomopathogenic nematodesagainst cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis cerasi L.(Diptera: Tephritidae)
			9.6.3 Entomopathogenic nematodes against Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae)
			9.6.4 Entomopathogenic nematodes against cabbage maggot, Delia radicum Linnaeus (Diptera: Anthomyiidae)
			9.6.5 Entomopathogenic nematodes against the melon fruit fly, Dacus ciliatus (Loew) (Diptera: Trypaneidae)
			9.6.6 Entomopathogenic nematodes against the olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae (Rossi) (Diptera: Tephritidae)
			9.6.7 Entomopathogenic nematodes against some other dipteran pests
		9.7 Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Integrated Pest Management Strategies Against Dipterans
		9.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects
		Acknowledgements
		References
	10: Control of Stored Grain Pests by Entomopathogenic Nematodes
		Background Issues and Aim
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Entomopathogenic Nematodes as Biological Control Agents
		10.3 Control of Stored Grain Pests by Entomopathogenic Nematodes
			10.3.1 Coleoptera
				Sitophilus spp.
				Tribolium spp.
				Rhyzopertha dominica (F.)
				Other stored-product beetles
			10.3.2 Lepidoptera
				Plodia interpunctella Hübner
				Ephestia kuehniella Zeller
		10.4 Factors Affecting the Virulence of Entomopathogenic Nematodes against Stored-product Insects
		10.5 Limitations and Future Prospects
		10.6 Conclusions
		Acknowledgements
		References
	11: Toxic Secretions of Xenorhabdus and Their Efficacy Against Crop Insect Pests
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Dependency of Steinernema on Xenorhabdus
		11.3 Dependency of Xenorhabdus on Steinernema
		11.4 Xenorhabdus nematophila corrig. (Poinar and Thomas 1965) Thomas and Poinar 1979
			11.4.1 Significance of Xenorhabdus nematophila as a biopesticide
			11.4.2 Toxic secretions of Xenorhabdus nematophila
				Xenocin
				42-kDa protein
				Txp40
				17-kDa pilin
				Fimbrial shaft protein
				Outer membrane vesicles (OMV)
				GroEL protein
		11.5 Xenorhabdus indica Somvanshi et al . 2009, sp. nov.
			11.5.1 Toxic secretions of Xenorhabdus indica
		11.6 Xenorhabdus bovienii (Akhurst 1983) Akhurst and Boemare 1993, comb. nov.
			11.6.1 Toxic secretions of Xenorhabdus bovienii
		11.7 Conclusions and Future Prospects
		Acknowledgements
		References
	12: Toxic Secretions of Photorhabdus and Their Efficacy Against Crop Insect Pests
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Entomopathogenic Nematodes and Their Mutualistic Bacteria-related Terminology
		12.3 Species of Photorhabdus
			12.3.1 Photorhabdus luminescens (synonym: Xenorhabdus luminescens)
			12.3.2 Photorhabdus temperata
			12.3.3 Photorhabdus heterorhabditis
			12.3.4 Photorhabdus asymbiotica
		12.4 Toxins of Photorhabdus species
			12.4.1 The toxin complexes (Tcs)
			12.4.2 Photorhabdus virulence cassettes (PVCs)
			12.4.3 Makes caterpillars floppy (Mcf) toxins
			12.4.4 Patox and photox
			12.4.5 Binary toxins
		12.5 Secretion systems of Photorhabdus bacteria
		12.6 Use and Development of Photorhabdus as Biocontrol Agents
			12.6.1 Potential for using Photorhabdus as biocontrol agents
			12.6.2 Application development and genetic engineering of Photorhabdus
		12.7 Conclusions and Future Prospects
		Acknowledgements
		References
	13: Entomopathogenic Nematodes: Mass Production, Formulation and Application
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Mass Production
			13.2.1 In vivo
				Inoculation
				Harvest
				Concentration
				Decontamination
				LOTEK technique
				Cadaver application method
			13.2.2 In vitro
				In vitro solid culture method
				In vitro liquid culture method
		13.3 Formulation and storage
		13.4 Quality
		13.5 Application Technology
		13.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects
		Acknowledgements
		References
Part IV: Role of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Integrated Pest Management
	14: Status of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Integrated Pest Management Strategies in the USA
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in the USA
		14.3 Application of Biological Control Agents (Entomopathogenic Nematodes) in Insect Pest Management in the USA
			14.3.1 What can biological methods (entomopathogenic nematodes) offer to insect pest management?
			14.3.2 A list of available products containing entomopathogenic nematodes in the USA
		14.4 Applications of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Vegetable Crop Production
			14.4.1 Field vegetable crop production
			14.4.2 Nursery and glasshouse production of vegetable and ornamental crops
		14.5 Arable Crop Production
		14.6 Other Applications of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in the USA
			14.6.1 Parks, turfgrass and urban and municipal areas
			14.6.2 Small fruit (berries, vineyards)
				Cane fruit
				Cranberry
				Blueberry
				Grapes
				Honeybees
			14.6.3 Orchard (fruit and nut tree pests)
			14.6.4 Mushrooms
		14.7 Interactions of Entomopathogenic Nematodes with Pesticides
		14.8 Technical Restrictions for Nematode Applications in the USA
			14.8.1 Regulatory restrictions
			14.8.2 Organic farming restrictions
			14.8.3 Technological restrictions for successful application
		14.9 Entomopathogenic Nematodes – Non-target Effects and Effects on Threatened and Endangered Insects
		14.10 Conclusion
		Acknowledgements
		References
	15: Status of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Integrated Pest Management Strategies in Canada
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Integrated Pest Management in Canada
		15.3 Application of Biological Control Agents in IPM in Canada
		15.4 Native Entomopathogenic Nematode Species in Canada
		15.5 An Outline of Studies on Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Canadian Research Centres
			15.5.1 Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia
			15.5.2 Department of Biology, Memorial University, St John’s Newfoundland
			15.5.3 Department of Natural Resource Sciences, Macdonald Campus of McGill University, Ste Anne de Bellevue, Quebec
			15.5.4 Research laboratories in the Federal Department, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa Research and Development Centre, Ottawa, Ontario
			15.5.5 Vineland Research Station, Vineland, Ontario
			15.5.6 Horticulture Research and Development Center, Saint-Jean, Quebec
			15.5.7 Research Institute, Belleville, Ontario
			15.5.8 Natural Resource Canada (NRC), Forestry Canada
			15.5.9 Vineland Research and Innovation Centre, Vineland, Ontario (private)
		15.6 Application of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Crop Protection in Canada
			15.6.1 Control of white grub on turf
			15.6.2 Control of leaf miners in greenhouse crops
			15.6.3 Control of weevils on blueberries
		15.7 Other Areas with Advanced Stages of Research and Development of Entomopathogenic Nematodes
			15.7.1 Controlling insect pests of maize
		15.8 Safety and Regulations
			15.8.1 Importation
			15.8.2 Registration
		15.9 Conclusions
		Acknowledgements
		References
	16: Status of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Integrated Pest Management Strategies in Argentina
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Integrated Pest Management in Argentina
		16.3 Application of Biological Control Agents in Argentina
		16.4 An Outline of Studies on Entomonematodes (Parasites, Parasitoids and Pathogenic) in Argentinian Research Centres
			16.4.1 Entomopathogenic nematodes in insects impacting public health
				Parasitoids
				Parasites
			16.4.2 Entomonematodes in insects of agricultural impact
				Parasites and parasitoids
				Entomopathogenic nematodes
		16.5 Application of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Vegetable Crop Protection
			16.5.1 Field conditions
			16.5.2 Greenhouse environment
		16.6 Other Applications of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Argentina
			16.6.1 Entomopathogenic nematodes against Diptera (Culicidae, Muscidae)
		16.7 Role of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Integrated Pest Management in Argentina
			16.7.1 Tasks include
				Preventive methods
				Monitoring
			16.7.2 Application of products
				Chemicals or curative
				Biological: natural control, with conservation of natural enemies
				Verification (management control)
		16.8 Technical Restrictions
		16.9 Entomopathogenic Nematodes – Potential Threat to the Ecosystem?
		16.10 Conclusion
		Acknowledgements
		References
	17: Status of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Integrated Pest Management Strategies in Brazil
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Integrated Pest Management in Brazil
		17.3 Application of Biological Control Agents in Integrated Pest Management in Brazil
			17.3.1 What can biological methods offer to integrated pest management?
			17.3.2 An outline of studies on entomopathogenic nematodes in Brazilian research centres
				Diversity of entomopathogenic nematodes
				Biology and ecology
			17.3.3 Production
			17.3.4 Formulation
			17.3.5 Application
				Vegetable crops
				Arable crops
		17.4 Other Applications of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Brazil
			17.4.1 Parks, urban tree plantings and municipal forests
			17.4.2 Orchards of fruit trees
			17.4.3 Poultry production
			17.4.4 Coffee pests
		17.5 Interactions of Entomopathogenic Nematodes with Pesticides and Biological Products
			17.5.1 Compatibility with pesticides
			17.5.2 Association with plant products
			17.5.3 Association with other biological control agents
		17.6 Conclusions
		Acknowledgements
		References
	18: Status of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Integrated Pest Management Strategies in India
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Diversity and Distribution of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in India
		18.3 Utilization of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in India against Various Insect Pests
			18.3.1 White grubs
			18.3.2 Sugarcane shoot and internode borers ( Chilo spp.)
			18.3.3 Rice insect pests
			18.3.4 Other crop insect pests
		18.4 Environmental Considerations in Using Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Indian Agriculture
			18.4.1 Soil moisture
			18.4.2 Temperature
		18.5 Integration of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Integrated Pest Management Programmes
			18.5.1 Compatibility of entomopathogenic nematodes with other biocontrol agents in integrated pest management programmes
		18.6 Mass Production of Entomopathogenic Nematodes
			18.6.1 In vivo
			18.6.2 In vitro
		18.7 Formulation of Entomopathogenic Nematodes
		18.8 Application Technology of Entomopathogenic Nematodes
			18.8.1 Enhancement of efficacy
		18.9 Conclusion and Future Prospects
		Acknowledgements
		References
	19: Status of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Integrated Pest Management Strategies in Pakistan
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Integrated Pest Management in Pakistan
		19.3 Biological Control through Integrated Pest Management in Pakistan
			19.3.1 What can biological methods offer to integrated pest management?
			19.3.2 A list of products available in Pakistan containing entomopathogenic nematodes
		19.4 An Outline of Studies on Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Pakistan Research Centres
			19.4.1 Current developmental status of entomopathogenic nematodes
			19.4.2 Galleria mellonella L. cultures
			19.4.3 Isolation of entomopathogenic nematodes
			19.4.4 Occurrence and distribution of entomopathogenic nematodes
			19.4.5 Biodiversity and biogeography of entomopathogenic nematodes
			19.4.6 Identified fauna of entomopathogenic nematodes
			19.4.7 New species of entomopathogenic nematodes
			19.4.8 Steinernema asiaticum Anis, Shahina, Reid and Rowe, 2002a
				Molecular characterization
				Distribution
			19.4.9 Steinernema balochiense Shahina, Tabassum, Ali, Solangi, Mehreen and Salma, 2015
				Molecular characterization
				Distribution
			19.4.10 Steinernema bifurcatum Shahina, Xun, Qiu, Han, Mehreen, Tabassum and Salma, 2014a
				Molecular characterization
				Distribution
			19.4.11 Steinernema maqbooli Shahina, Tabassum, Mehreen and Salma, 2013a
				Molecular characterization
				Distribution
			19.4.12 Steinernema pakistanense Shahina, Anis, Reid, Rowe and Maqbool, 2001
				Molecular characterization
				Distribution
			19.4.13 Heterorhabditis pakistanense Shahina, Tabassum, Salma and Mehreen, 2016
				Molecular characterization
				Distribution
			19.4.14 New records of entomopathogenic nematodes
			19.4.15 Steinernema abbasi Elawad, Ahmad and Reid, 1997
				Molecular characterization
				Distribution
			19.4.16 Steinernema carpocapsae (Weiser, 1955) Wouts, Mracek, Gerdin and Bedding, 1982
				Molecular characterization
				Distribution
			19.4.17 Steinernema feltiae (Filipjev, 1934) Wouts, Mracek, Gerdin and Bedding, 1982
				Distribution
			19.4.18 Steinernema siamkayai Stock, Somsook and Reid, 1998
				Molecular characterization
				Distribution
			19.4.19 Steinernema litorale Yoshida, 2004
				Molecular characterization
				Distribution
			19.4.20 Heterorhabditis bacteriophora Poinar, 1976
				Molecular characterization
				Distribution
			19.4.21 Heterorhabditis indica Poinar, Karunakar and David, 1992
				Molecular characterization
				Distribution
			19.4.22 Isolation, identification and characterization of symbiotic bacteria of entomopathogenic nematodes
			19.4.23 Virulence of heat-tolerant indigenous entomopathogenic nematodes against insect pests
			19.4.24 Mass production of entomopathogenic nematodes
				In vitro technology
				In vivo technology
		19.5 Application of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Vegetable and Arable Crop Protection
			19.5.1 Field and greenhouse environment
				Tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum L.)
				Okra ( Abelmoschus esculentus  Moench)
				Brinjal ( Solanum melongena L.)
				Mango ( Mangifera indica L.)
				Cotton ( Gossypium hirsutum L.)
				Bermuda grass ( Cynodon dactylon L.)
		19.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects
		Acknowledgements
		References
	20: Status of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Integrated Pest Management Strategies in South Africa
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Integrated Pest Management in South Africa
		20.3 Application of Biological Control Agents in Integrated Pest Management in South Africa
			20.3.1 What biological methods can offer to integrated pest management
			20.3.2 Products containing entomopathogenic nematodes in South Africa
		20.4 An Outline of Entomopathogenic Nematode Studies at South African Research Centres
		20.5 Application of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Vegetable Crop Protection
			20.5.1 Field environment
			20.5.2 Greenhouse environment
		20.6 Application of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Arable Crop Protection
			20.6.1 Sugarcane
			20.6.2 Grapevine
		20.7 Other Applications of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in South Africa
			20.7.1 Parks and urban tree plantings, municipal forests
			20.7.2 Orchards
				Pome fruits
				Citrus
			20.7.3 Production of garden mushroom and oyster mushroom
			20.7.4 Poultry production
			20.7.5 Application of entomopathogenic nematodes against stable flies
		20.8 Interactions of Entomopathogenic Nematodes with Pesticides
		20.9 Technical Restrictions for Nematode Applications
		20.10 Entomopathogenic Nematodes – Potential Threat to Ecosystems
		20.11 Conclusions
		Acknowledgements
		References
	21: Status of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Integrated Pest Management Strategies in Italy
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 Integrated Pest Management in Italy
		21.3 Application of Biological Control Agents in Integrated Pest Management in Italy
		21.4 An Outline of Studies on Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Italy
		21.5 Application of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Vegetable Crop Protection
			21.5.1 Vine weevil ( Otiorhynchus sulcatus) control in nurseries, ornamental plants and strawberry
		21.6 Application of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Arable Crop Protection
		21.7 Applications of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Parks, Urban Tree Plantings and Municipal Forest
			21.7.1 Experience in control of red palm weevil ( Rhynchophorus ferrugineus) in an Italian central-eastern region
			21.7.2 Control of the sawfly, Caliroa varipes, on oak in urban parks
			21.7.3 Control of pine processionary moth ( Thaumetopoea pityocampa) in pinewoods
		21.8 Applications of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Orchards
			21.8.1 Codling moth ( Cydia pomonella) control on pear and apple orchards
			21.8.2 Control of the sawfly, Hoplocampa brevis, in pear orchard
			21.8.3 Control of Capnodis tenebrionis on stone-fruit trees
			21.8.4 Control of the clearwing moths ( Synanthedon tipuliformis and Synanthedon spuleri), on persimmon in northern Italy
			21.8.5 Control of carpophagous Lepidoptera ( Pammene fasciana, Cydia splendana and Cydia fagiglandana) in chestnut
		21.9 Applications of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Production of Garden Mushroom and Oyster Mushroom
			21.9.1 Sciarid flies (Diptera: Sciaridae) control in nursery of plant material and in mushroom cultivation
		21.10 Interactions of Entomopathogenic Nematodes with Pesticides
		21.11 Technical Restrictions for Nematode Applications
		21.12 Entomopathogenic Nematodes – Potential Threat to Ecosystems
		21.13 Conclusions
		Acknowledgements
		References
	22: Status of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Integrated Pest Management Strategies in Poland
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Integrated Pest Management in Poland
		22.3 What Can Biological Methods Offer to Integrated Pest Management?
		22.4 An Outline of Studies on Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Polish Research Centres
			22.4.1 Application of entomopathogenic nematodes for the protection of vegetables
				Field conditions
				Greenhouse conditions
			22.4.2 Application of entomopathogenic nematodes for arable crop protection
			22.4.3 Other applications of entomopathogenic nematodes in Poland
				Parks, urban tree plantings and municipal forests
				Orchards
				Production of mushrooms and oyster mushrooms
				Poultry production
				Application of entomopathogenic nematodes against stable flies
		22.5 Interactions of Entomopathogenic Nematodes with Pesticides
		22.6 Technical Restrictions for Nematode Applications
		22.7 Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Agriculture – Potential Threat to Protected Beetle Species
		22.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects
		Acknowledgements
		References
	23: Status of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Integrated Pest Management Strategies in China
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 Integrated Pest Management in China
		23.3 Application of Biological Control Agents in Integrated Pest Management in China
			23.3.1 What can biological methods offer to integrated pest management?
			23.3.2 A list of available products containing entomopathogenic nematodes in China
		23.4 An Outline of Studies on Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Chinese Research Centres
		23.5 Application of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Vegetable Crop Protection
			23.5.1 Application of entomopathogenic nematodes in Chinese chive
			23.5.2 Application of entomopathogenic nematode in other vegetables
		23.6 Application of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Arable Crop Protection
		23.7 Other Applications of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in China
			23.7.1 Parks and urban tree plantings, municipal forests
			23.7.2 Orchards
			23.7.3 Production of edible mushroom
			23.7.4 Application of entomopathogenic nematodes against stable flies
		23.8 Interactions of Entomopathogenic Nematodes with Pesticides and Others
		23.9 Technical Restrictions for Nematode Applications
		23.10 Entomopathogenic Nematodes – Potential Threat to Ecosystems
		23.11 Conclusion and Future Prospects
		Acknowledgements
		References
	24: Status of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Integrated Pest Management Strategies in Egypt
		24.1 Introduction
		24.2 Integrated Pest Management in Egypt
		24.3 Application of Biological Control Agents in Integrated Pest Management in Egypt
		24.4 An Outline of Infrastructure and Studies on Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Egypt
			24.4.1 Background of entomopathogenic nematode research and diversity in Egypt
			24.4.2 Desirable traits of entomopathogenic nematodes as attributes for inclusion in integrated pest management programmes
				Rationale
				Merits of their biology
				Their foraging strategy
				Olfaction frames entomopathogenic nematode–host interactions
				Relative ease of their mass production and application
		24.5 Entomopathogenic Nematode Compatibility and Interactions with Other Chemicals and Control Agents
			24.5.1 Compatibility with chemicals
			24.5.2 Interactions with other biocontrol agents
		24.6 Egyptian Scenario for Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Integrated Pest Management
			24.6.1 Scenario for entomopathogenic nematode production and end-users
			24.6.2 Entomopathogenic nematodes with non-pesticide agricultural practices
			24.6.3 Scenario for entomopathogenic nematodes with other pesticides
		24.7 Conclusions and Future Prospects
		Acknowledgements
		References
Part V: Genetics for Enhancing Efficacy in Entomopathogenic Nematodes
	25: Genetic Improvement of Entomopathogenic Nematodes for Enhanced Biological Control
		25.1 Introduction
		25.2 Traits for Improvement
			25.2.1 Infectivity
			25.2.2 Persistence and survival
		25.3 Molecular Methods for Genetic Improvement
			25.3.1 Genomic analyses of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora
			25.3.2 Genomic analyses of Steinernema
		25.4 Troubleshooting
		25.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects
		Acknowledgements
		References
	26: Breeding Entomopathogenic Nematodes for Enhanced Insect Pest Suppression
		26.1 Introduction
		26.2 Methodology for Genetic Improvement
			26.2.1 Classical genetics
				Selective breeding
				Hybridization
				Mutagenesis
			26.2.2 Genetic engineering
		26.3 Targets for Breeding Programmes of Entomopathogenic Nematodes
			26.3.1 Efficacy
			26.3.2 Resistance to environmental extremes
		26.4 Entomopathogenic Bacteria
			26.4.1 Pathogenicity
			26.4.2 Host specificity
			26.4.3 Symbiont specificity
			26.4.4 Resistance to extremes in the environment
			26.4.5 Phase variation
		26.5 Risks of Release of Genetically Modified Entomopathogenic Nematodes and/or their Symbiont Bacteria
		26.6 Conclusions
		Acknowledgements
		References
Part VI: Slug Parasitic Nematodes
	27 Slug Parasitic Nematodes: Biology, Parasitism, Production and Application
		27.1 Introduction
		27.2 Biology and Parasitism of Slug Parasitic Nematodes
			27.2.1 Biology and ecology
		27.3 Morphology of Different Families of Slug Parasitic Nematodes
			27.3.1 Agfidae
				A brief description
			27.3.2 Alaninematidae
				A brief description
			27.3.3 Alloionematidae
				A brief description
			27.3.4 Angiostomatidae
				A brief description
			27.3.5 Cosmocercidae
				A brief description
			27.3.6 Diplogasteridae
				A brief description
			27.3.7 Mermithidae
				A brief description
			27.3.8 Rhabditidae
				A brief description
		27.4 Parasitism
		27.5 Mass Production
		27.6 Application
		27.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects
		Acknowledgements
		References
	28: The Discovery and Commercialization of a Slug Parasitic Nematode
		28.1 Introduction
		28.2 Preliminary Investigations
		28.3 Culturing, Harvesting and Storing Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita
			28.3.1 Selection of pathogenic bacterial isolates
			28.3.2 Commercial production
		28.4 Host Range Studies
		28.5 Initial Field Experiments in Biocontrol
			28.5.1 Mini-plot trials
			28.5.2 First field trial in winter wheat
			28.5.3 First trials in lettuce
		28.6 Commercialization
			28.6.1 Product launch
			28.6.2 Early commercial trials
		28.7 Further Studies to Extend the Commercial Use of P. hermaphrodita
			28.7.1 Influence of timing of application on nematode efficacy
			28.7.2 Value of incorporating nematodes into soil after application
			28.7.3 Exploiting the repellent effects of nematodes
			28.7.4 Effects on snails of conservation interest
		28.8 Conclusions
		Acknowledgements
		References
	29: Phasmarhabditis : The Slug and Snail Parasitic Nematodes in North America
		29.1 Introduction
		29.2 Invasive Gastropods in North America
		29.3 Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita and Development of Nemaslug in the UK
		29.4 Early Gastropod Nematode Surveys in North America
		29.5 Multiple Phasmarhabditis Species in California
		29.6 Species Diagnostics
		29.7 Implications and Future Prospects
			29.7.1 Geographic distribution
			29.7.2 Bacterial choice
			29.7.3 Biological control potential
			29.7.4 Host range
			29.7.5 Nursery and field tests
			29.7.6 Novel formulations and delivery
		29.8 Conclusions
		Acknowledgements
		Endnote
		References
Part VII: Commercialization and Future Prospects
	30: Compatibility between Entomopathogenic Nematodes and Phytopharmaceuticals
		30.1 Introduction
		30.2 Factors that Influence the Survival of Entomopathogenic Nematodes
		30.3 Phytopharmaceuticals
		30.4 Factors that Influence the Compatibility between Entomopathogenic Nematodes and Phytopharmaceuticals
			30.4.1 Entomopathogenic nematode species
			30.4.2 Entomopathogenic nematode strains
			30.4.3 Temperature
		30.5 The Use of Entomopathogenic Nematodes and Selected Phytopharmaceuticals in Integrated Pest Management
		30.6 Conclusions
		Acknowledgements
		References
	31: Strategies for Making Entomopathogenic Nematodes Cost-effective Biocontrol Agents
		31.1 Introduction
		31.2 Diversity in Entomopathogenic Nematodes and their Potential
		31.3 Desirable Attributes of Entomopathogenic Nematodes to Develop Them as Commercial Products
		31.4 Status of the World Market for Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Comparison with Biopesticides
		31.5 Strategies for Making Entomopathogenic Nematodes Cost-effective Biocontrol Agents
			31.5.1 Factors contributing to the costs
			31.5.2 Cost-effective production to scale
			31.5.3 Postharvest downstream processing
			31.5.4 Cost-effective formulations
			31.5.5 Packaging, storage and shelf life of entomopathogenic nematodes
			31.5.6 Quality assurance is another important factor that plays a vital role in market price
			31.5.7 Regulations – essential component of commercialization
		31.6 Production and Commercialization of Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Developing Countries
		31.7 Conclusion
		Acknowledgements
		References
	32: Future Thrusts in Expanding the Use of Entomopathogenic and Slug Parasitic Nematodes in Agriculture
		32.1 Introduction
		32.2 Commercially Available Nematodes
		32.3 Constraints in the Expansion of Entomopathogenic and Slug Parasitic Nematodes
			32.3.1 High price of nematode products
			32.3.2 Limited product demand–supply–availability
			32.3.3 Insufficient knowledge of end-users
			32.3.4 Low efficacy of nematodes
		32.4 Factors That Can Enhance and Expand the Use of Entomopathogenic and Slug Parasitic Nematodes
			32.4.1 Lowering the price of nematode products
			32.4.2 Increasing the demand-based supply of nematode products
			32.4.3 Improving the knowledge of end-users for enhancing the use of nematode products
		32.5 Conclusion
		Acknowledgements
		References
Index
Back_Cover