Assessing, Mapping and Modelling of Mangrove Ecosystem Services in the Asia-Pacific Region

Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Chapter 1: Envisioning the Future of Mangroves Through Mapping and Modeling of Mangrove Ecosystem Services
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Drivers of Mangrove Loss in Asia and Pacific
	1.3 Future Uncertainties in the Delivery of Mangrove Ecosystem Services
	1.4 Taking a Scenario and Modeling Approach to Understand Mangrove Sustainability
	1.5 About the Book
	References
Part I: Trend Analysis, Scenario Building and Identification of the Influential Drivers of Change
	Chapter 2: Monitoring Spatial and Temporal Distribution, Pattern, and Trend Prediction of Coastal Mangroves in Pakistan Using ...
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 The Study Area
		2.3 Methods and Material
			2.3.1 Preprocessing, Supervised Classification, and NDVI
			2.3.2 Tools and Techniques
		2.4 Spatiotemporal Distribution of Coastal Mangroves
		2.5 Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Mangroves Using NDVI
		2.6 Spatiotemporal Analysis of Mangroves
			2.6.1 Microlevel Analysis of Coastal Mangroves in Sindh Province
			2.6.2 Microlevel Analysis of Coastal Mangroves in Baluchistan Province
		2.7 Trend Prediction of Coastal Mangroves
		2.8 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 3: Assessment of Mangrove Colonization of Aquaculture Ponds Through Satellite Image Analysis: Implications for Mangrov...
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Methods
			3.2.1 Study Site
			3.2.2 Data Preprocessing
			3.2.3 Supervised Classification
		3.3 Results
		3.4 Discussion
			3.4.1 Mangrove Regeneration
		3.5 Impact of Policies on Mangrove Rehabilitation
		3.6 Implications for Mangrove Management and Restoration
		3.7 Research/Management Gaps and Recommendations
		References
	Chapter 4: Ecosystem Services and Their Future Scenarios Centering on Mangrove Ecosystem in Ishigaki Island, Japan
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Mangroves and Other Land Use and Land Cover on Ishigaki Island
			4.2.1 Mangrove Communities
				4.2.1.1 Miyara River
				4.2.1.2 Nagura Anparu
				4.2.1.3 Fukido River
			4.2.2 Mangrove Ecosystem Services
		4.3 Historical Changes in Mangroves and Their Drivers
			4.3.1 Direct Drivers
			4.3.2 Indirect Drivers
		4.4 Future Scenarios
			4.4.1 Hypothetical Scenarios for Ishigaki Mangroves Drawing on Existing Scenarios
			4.4.2 Mapping Relevant Policies in the Hypothetical Scenario Space
			4.4.3 Scenarios and Key Policy Metrics for Ishigaki Island
		4.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 5: A Participatory Stakeholder-Based Approach to Assess the Drivers and Challenges of Mangrove Loss in Kochi, Kerala, ...
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Study Area
		5.3 Methodology
		5.4 Result and Discussion
			5.4.1 Population Growth
			5.4.2 Shrimp Farming/Aquaculture
			5.4.3 Deforestation and Land-Use Change to Build up Expansion
			5.4.4 Urbanization
			5.4.5 Coastal Industrial Projects
			5.4.6 Dredging and Port
			5.4.7 Tourism, Plastic Pollution, and Solid and Hazardous Waste Management
			5.4.8 Construction of Roads and Waterways
			5.4.9 Encroachment and Coastal Policies
			5.4.10 Natural Disaster Climate Change and Sea-Level Rise
			5.4.11 Eutrophication and Coastal Acidification
			5.4.12 Lack of Awareness
			5.4.13 Introduction of New Species
		5.5 Conclusions
		Presentation of Annexure
		References
	Chapter 6: Understanding Potential Drivers of Mangrove Loss in Bhitarkanika and Mahanadi Delta, India, to Enhance Effective Re...
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Study Area
		6.3 Methodology
		6.4 Drivers of Mangrove Loss in Bhitarkanika and Mahanadi Delta
			6.4.1 Demographic
			6.4.2 Local Socioeconomics
			6.4.3 Governance
			6.4.4 Land-Use Change Due to Buildup Expansion
			6.4.5 Aquaculture
			6.4.6 Deforestation and Degradation
			6.4.7 Agriculture Intensification
			6.4.8 Port, Jetty, and Coastal Industrial Projects
			6.4.9 Road and Waterways
			6.4.10 Encroachment
			6.4.11 Extreme Climate Events (Ex., Tsunami, Cyclones, and Floods)
			6.4.12 Sea-Level Rise
			6.4.13 Tourism, Pollution, Solid, and Hazardous Waste
			6.4.14 Eutrophication and Ocean Acidification
			6.4.15 Invasive Species and Insects Pests
			6.4.16 Other Drivers
		6.5 Endorsing Ecosystem Health Assessment
		6.6 Conclusion
		References
Part II: Assessing Mangrove Ecosystem Services
	Chapter 7: Advancement in Measurement and Estimation Methods of Blue Carbon Studies
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Organic Carbon in the Biomass
			7.2.1 Mangrove
			7.2.2 Seagrass
			7.2.3 Saltmarshes
			7.2.4 Macroalgae
			7.2.5 Organic Carbon in the Detritus
		7.3 Forms of Blue Carbon in Water
			7.3.1 Particulate Organic Carbon (POC)
			7.3.2 Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC)
			7.3.3 Dissolved Inorganic Carbon (DIC)
		7.4 Carbon Sequestration in the Water Column
		7.5 Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) and Soil CO2 Efflux (SCE)
		7.6 Determination of the Source of Blue Carbon
		7.7 Lateral Flux of Blue Carbon
		7.8 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 8: Change Mapping of Aboveground Carbon Stocks and Ecosystem Services in the Mangrove Forest of Andaman Islands: Impli...
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Study Area
		8.3 Methodology
			8.3.1 Delineation of Mangrove Cover
			8.3.2 Accuracy Assessment
			8.3.3 Aboveground Biomass and Carbon Stock Calculation
		8.4 Results
			8.4.1 Change in Mangrove Cover
		8.5 Discussion
		8.6 Policy Implications
		8.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 9: Depicting Mangrove´s Potential as Blue Carbon Champion in Indonesia
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Research Goals
		9.3 Data and Methods
		9.4 Results and Discussion
			9.4.1 Blue Carbon Adoption in Indonesia
			9.4.2 Actors and Messengers of Blue Carbon Initiative
			9.4.3 The Blue Carbon Discourse in the Public Arena
		9.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 10: Eco-Engineering and Mangrove Restoration Methods to Stabilize Earthen Embankments and Establishing Bio-Shield Agai...
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Ecosystem Services Provided by Mangroves
		10.3 Rationale Behind Using Mangrove as Disaster Bio-Shield
			10.3.1 First Restoration Layer: Avicennia marina
			10.3.2 Second Restoration Layer: Ceriops sp.-Bruguiera spp.
			10.3.3 Third Layer: Rhizophora mucronata
			10.3.4 Fourth Layer: Sonneretia sp. and Excoecaria sp.
			10.3.5 Avoiding Introduction of Invasive or Exotic Species
		10.4 Community Participation in Mangrove Restoration
		10.5 Case Study
		10.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 11: Ecosystem Services of Urban Fringe Mangrove Forests: The Case of Tamsui River Estuary Mangrove Forest, Taiwan
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Study Area and Methods
			11.2.1 Study Area
			11.2.2 Research Methods
				11.2.2.1 Analysis of Changes in Land Use
				11.2.2.2 Ecosystem Service Evaluation
				11.2.2.3 Hotspot/Cold Spot Analysis for Ecosystem Services
		11.3 Results and Discussion
			11.3.1 The Changes in Land Use
			11.3.2 Changes in Ecosystem Services
			11.3.3 Changes in Ecosystem Service Hotspots
		11.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 12: Diversity and Structural Characteristics of Mangrove Forests in the Southern District of Oriental Mindoro, Philipp...
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Materials and Methods
			12.2.1 The Study Sites
			12.2.2 Data Collection
			12.2.3 Diversity Analysis
			12.2.4 Species Similarities
			12.2.5 Mangrove Structural Characteristics
		12.3 Results and Discussion
			12.3.1 Mangrove Composition Across Mangrove Sites
			12.3.2 Species Diversity Across Mangrove Sites
		12.4 Mangrove Structural Characteristics
		12.5 Discussion
		12.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 13: Cultural Ecosystem Services of Mangroves: A Review of Models and Methods
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Perception of Local Communities Across the World Toward Cultural Ecosystem Services Provided by Mangrove Forests
		13.3 Assessment of Cultural Ecosystem Services
		13.4 Uncertainties in Methods
		13.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 14: Capacity-Building Around Indigenous and Local Knowledge (ILK) Systems for Effective Climate Adaptation in the Low-...
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 ILK in the Context of Increasing Climate Change Impacts in Low-Lying Coasts and Small Islands
		14.3 Key Capacity Gaps for Applying ILKs for Climate Change Adaptation in Coasts and Small Islands
		14.4 Need for a Sustained Approach of Capacity Building
		14.5 Capacity Building Elements for the Application of ILK for Climate Change Adaptation
			14.5.1 Knowledge System
			14.5.2 Institutions and Processes
			14.5.3 Communication
		14.6 Conclusion and Recommendations
		References
	Chapter 15: Ecosystem Services and Well-Being in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh: A Multiple Evidence Base Trajectory
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Conceptualising Human-Nature Interdependence
		15.3 Ecosystem Services (ES) and Well-Being
			15.3.1 Current State of ES
			15.3.2 Ecosystem Services, Multiple Values and Well-Being
			15.3.3 Drivers of Changes
		15.4 Traditional Resource Users and Well-Being
			15.4.1 Corroborative Evidence
			15.4.2 Impact of COVID-19 on Traditional Resource Users (TRUs)
		15.5 Human-Nature Sociality and One Health Approach: A Transformational Pathway
		15.6 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 16: Fostering Mangrove Ecosystem Services for a Resilient Future for the Asia-Pacific Region: A Knowledge Synthesis
		16.1 Introduction
			16.1.1 Mangroves in Contemporary Policy Discourses
		16.2 Key Observations, Opportunities, and Challenges
			16.2.1 Significant Advancement of Geospatial Approach in Mangrove Mapping and Monitoring
			16.2.2 Restoration Scenarios Are Taking Over Degradation Scenarios
			16.2.3 Participatory Approaches Help Identify Potentially Influential Drivers and Ecosystem Services
			16.2.4 Tapping the Regulating Services for Eco-Engineering and Nature-Based Solutions (NbS)
			16.2.5 Indigenous and Local Knowledge (ILK) and Cultural Values Strengthen Mangrove Conservation and Restoration
		16.3 Conclusion
		References