Advanced Sensor Technology: Biomedical, Environmental, and Construction Applications

Advanced Sensor Technology
Preface
List of contributors
Copyright
Contents
About the editors
1 Sensor technology: past, present, and future
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Milestones in sensor development
	1.3 State-of-the-art in sensor technology
	1.4 The way ahead in sensing opportunities
	1.5 Conclusions and remarks
	Acknowledgments
	References
2 Fundamentals of sensor technology
	2.1 Sensor, actuator, and transducer fundamentals
		2.1.1 Introduction
		2.1.2 Sensor characteristics
		2.1.3 Signal processing of sensors
			2.1.3.1 Signals of sensors and transducers
			2.1.3.2 Signal conditioning of sensors
	2.2 Sensors’ classification
		2.2.1 Chemical sensors
			2.2.1.1 Overview
			2.2.1.2 Types of chemosensors
		2.2.2 Biosensors
			2.2.2.1 Overview
			2.2.2.2 Types of biosensors
		2.2.3 Electrochemical sensors
			2.2.3.1 Overview
			2.2.3.2 Types of electrochemical sensors
		2.2.4 Optical sensors
			2.2.4.1 Overview
			2.2.4.2 Types of optical sensors
	2.3 Sensor applications
		2.3.1 Applications of electrochemical sensors
		2.3.2 Applications of optical sensors
		2.3.3 Applications of nanomaterial-based-sensors for water monitoring
			2.3.3.1 Metal and carbon-based sensors for water monitoring
			2.3.3.2 Polymer-based sensors for water monitoring
	2.4 Innovative sensor technologies
	2.5 Conclusion and future aspects
	References
3 Biosensors for virus detection
	3.1 Introduction
		3.1.1 Structure and infection mechanism of common viruses
		3.1.2 Current methods in virus detection
	3.2 Antibody-based biosensors for virus detection
	3.3 Nucleic acid-based biosensors for virus detection
	3.4 Peptide-based biosensors for virus detection
	3.5 Molecularly imprinted polymer-based biosensors for virus detection
	3.6 Conclusion and remarks
	Acknowledgments
	References
4 Biosensors for bacteria detection
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Whole-cell biosensors for bacteria detection
	4.3 Nanomaterials-based biosensors for bacteria detection
		4.3.1 Noble metal nanoparticles
		4.3.2 Carbon-based nanomaterials
		4.3.3 Semiconductor nanocrystals
	4.4 Various biosensors for bacteria detection
		4.4.1 Optical biosensors
		4.4.2 Electrochemical biosensors
		4.4.3 Mechanical biosensors
	4.5 Integrated biosensing platforms for multiplexed bacteria detection
	4.6 Conclusion and perspectives
	References
5 Biosensors for drug of abuse detection
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Drug biosensing
		5.2.1 Colorimetric approach
			5.2.1.1 Enzymes in colorimetric approach
			5.2.1.2 Aptamers in colorimetric approaches
		5.2.2 Fluorescence approaches
			5.2.2.1 Aptamers in fluorescence approaches
				5.2.2.1.1 Labeled aptamers in fluorescence approaches
				5.2.2.1.2 Label-free aptamers in fluorescence approaches
				5.2.2.1.3 Other strategies of aptamer-based fluorescence abuse drug biosensing
					5.2.2.1.3.1 Messenger activation upon aptamer binding
					5.2.2.1.3.2 Fluorophore displacement upon aptamer binding
					5.2.2.1.3.3 Repositioning of quencher upon aptamer binding
			5.2.2.2 Enzymes in fluorescence approaches
		5.2.3 Electrochemical approaches
			5.2.3.1 Antibodies in electrochemical approaches
			5.2.3.2 Aptamers in electrochemical approaches
			5.2.3.3 Molecularly imprinted polymers in electrochemical approaches
		5.2.4 Real-time analysis of abused drugs
			5.2.4.1 Immunochromatographic test strips based on real-time analysis of abused drugs
			5.2.4.2 Electrochemical-based real-time analysis of abused drugs
			5.2.4.3 Spectroscopic based real-time analysis of abused drugs
	5.3 Conclusion and remarks
	References
	Further reading
6 Biosensors for nucleic acid detection
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Optical nucleic acid biosensors: principles and feasibilities
		6.2.1 Surface plasmon resonance-based nucleic acid biosensors
		6.2.2 Localized surface plasmon resonance-based nucleic acid biosensors
		6.2.3 Surface-enhanced Raman scattering nucleic acid biosensors
		6.2.4 Fluorescence-based nucleic acid detection methods
	6.3 Electrochemical nucleic acid biosensors
	6.4 Strategies for improving the sensitivity of nucleic acid biosensors
	6.5 CRISPR/Cas-assisted biosensing platforms for nucleic acid detection
	6.6 Biosensor applications based on the nucleic acid structure
	6.7 Conclusion and outlook
	References
7 Biosensors for glucose detection
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Electrochemical glucose biosensors
		7.2.1 Enzymatic electrochemical glucose biosensors
		7.2.2 Nonenzymatic electrochemical glucose biosensors
	7.3 Optical glucose biosensors
		7.3.1 Enzymatic optical glucose biosensors
		7.3.2 Nonenzymatic optical glucose biosensors
	7.4 Other glucose biosensors
	7.5 Conclusion and remarks
	Acknowledgments
	References
8 Recent advances in biosensing technologies for detecting hormones
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Biosensor types based on biorecognition elements
		8.2.1 Antibody
		8.2.2 Enzymes
		8.2.3 Nucleic acid and aptamers
		8.2.4 Molecularly imprinted polymers
	8.3 Biosensors based on transducers in hormone detection
		8.3.1 Electrochemical biosensors for hormone detection
			8.3.1.1 Amperometric biosensors
			8.3.1.2 Potentiometric biosensors
			8.3.1.3 Impedimetric biosensors
			8.3.1.4 Conductometric biosensors for hormones
		8.3.2 Optical biosensors for hormones
		8.3.3 Microbial screening technique for hormone detection
		8.3.4 Wearable sensors for hormone detection
		8.3.5 Other biosensors for hormone
	8.4 Discussion and conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	Conflicts of interest
	References
9 Biosensors for cancer biomarker detection
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Cancer progress and biomarkers
		9.2.1 Molecular biology of cancer occurrence and progress
		9.2.2 Cancer biomarkers
			9.2.2.1 Protein biomarkers
			9.2.2.2 Genetic biomarkers
	9.3 Electrochemical biosensors for cancer biomarker detection
	9.4 Optical biosensors for cancer biomarker detection
	9.5 Piezoelectric biosensors for cancer biomarker detection
	9.6 Other biosensors for cancer biomarker detection
	9.7 Conclusion and remarks
	Acknowledgments
	References
10 Classical and new candidate biomarkers for developing biosensors in diagnosing diabetes and prediabetes; past, present a...
	10.1 Introduction to diabetes mellitus
		10.1.1 Prevalence
		10.1.2 Health issues related to diabetes
		10.1.3 Economic burden
	10.2 Pathophysiology of diabetes
		10.2.1 Type 2 diabetes mellitus
			10.2.1.1 The role of insulin in energy metabolism
			10.2.1.2 The ominous octet
		10.2.2 Type 1 diabetes mellitus
		10.2.3 Differential diagnosis of T1DM versus T2DM
		10.2.4 Gestational diabetes mellitus
	10.3 Glucose as a diabetes biomarker (history, accuracy, advantages, and disadvantages)
		10.3.1 Current glucose sensors in clinical practice (accuracy, advantages, disadvantages)
			10.3.1.1 Enzymatic and nonenzymatic sensors
			10.3.1.2 Continuous glucose monitoring systems
			10.3.1.3 Invasive continuous glucose sensors
			10.3.1.4 Noninvasive glucose monitoring system
			10.3.1.5 Optical sensors
			10.3.1.6 Electrochemical sensors
			10.3.1.7 Wearable biosensing
		10.3.2 The role of nanomaterials in glucose biosensors
		10.3.3 Glucose biosensors for point-of-care testing
		10.3.4 Perspective and glucose sensor developments
	10.4 Glycated hemoglobin and glycated albumin as diabetes biomarkers
		10.4.1 Glycated hemoglobin as a diabetes biomarker (history, accuracy, advantages, and disadvantages)
			10.4.1.1 Current hemoglobin sensors in clinical practice (accuracy, advantages, disadvantages)
		10.4.2 Glycated albumin as a diabetes biomarker (history, accuracy, advantages, and disadvantages)
			10.4.2.1 Current GA biosensors in clinical practice (accuracy, advantages, disadvantages)
		10.4.3 Perspective and GA sensors (designed biosensors for GA and HbA1c monitoring) in development
	10.5 Novel biomarkers/metabolites in diabetes and associated complications
		10.5.1 Micro RNA
		10.5.2 Peptides/proteins
		10.5.3 Other novel biomarkers in diabetes and associated complications
	10.6 Conclusion
	References
11 Biosensors for drug detection
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Criteria of an ideal method for drug analysis
		11.2.1 Reproducibility, reliability, and accuracy of the method
		11.2.2 Ease of operation
		11.2.3 Using the minimum amount of biological sample
		11.2.4 The speed of analytical process
		11.2.5 Compatibility with different kinds of biologic fluids
		11.2.6 The cost
	11.3 Biosensor design
		11.3.1 Basic characteristics of a biosensor
		11.3.2 Nanobiosensors
	11.4 Biosensors for drug detection
		11.4.1 Electrochemical biosensors
			11.4.1.1 Impedometric biosensors
			11.4.1.2 Potentiometric technique
		11.4.2 Optical biosensors
			11.4.2.1 Surface enhanced Raman scattering spectroscopy
			11.4.2.2 Colorimetric assays
			11.4.2.3 Chemiluminescence assays
			11.4.2.4 Fluorescence assays
			11.4.2.5 SPR assays
		11.4.3 Photoelectrochemical biosensors
		11.4.4 Mass biosensors
		11.4.5 Microfluidic-based (microfluidic-integrated) biosensors
	11.5 Recent trends in biosensors for drug detection
	11.6 Conclusion
	References
12 Micro alcohol fuel cells towards autonomous electrochemical sensors
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Fundamentals
	12.3 Design and flow considerations
	12.4 Fuels electrooxidation and micropower generation
	12.5 Examples toward sensing applications
	12.6 Conclusion and future outlook
	References
13 Biosensors for organs-on-a-chip and organoids
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 The use of biosensors in organotypic models
		13.2.1 Molecular biosensors
		13.2.2 Cell-based biosensors
		13.2.3 Tissue-based biosensors
	13.3 Biosensing technologies for monitoring organotypic models
		13.3.1 Biosensors for cell behavior
		13.3.2 Metabolic activity
			Oxygen
			Small molecules of energy metabolism
			Cytokines
		13.3.3 Mechanical activity
		13.3.4 Electrical activity
	13.4 Applications of biosensors in in vitro culture platforms of organotypic models
		13.4.1 Biosensors in barrier models
		13.4.2 Biosensors in neural models
		13.4.3 Biosensors in cardiac models
		13.4.4 Biosensors in liver models
		13.4.5 Biosensors in kidney models
	13.5 Conclusion and future perspectives
	Acknowledgments
	References
14 Sensors for water and wastewater monitoring
	14.1 Wastewater pollutants
	14.2 Sources of water pollutants
	14.3 Types of water pollutants
		14.3.1 Organic pollutants
		14.3.2 Inorganic pollutants
		14.3.3 Microbial pathogens
		14.3.4 Macroscopic pollutants
		14.3.5 Thermal pollution
		14.3.6 Emerging water pollution
	14.4 Indicators of water pollution
		14.4.1 Chemical indicators of water quality
		14.4.2 Physical indicators of water pollution
		14.4.3 Biological indicators of water pollution
	14.5 Analytical methods for the detection of wastewater pollutants
		14.5.1 Introduction
		14.5.2 Electrochemical methods
			14.5.2.1 Amperometric techniques
			14.5.2.2 Voltammetric techniques
		14.5.3 Chromatography
			14.5.3.1 Gas chromatography
			14.5.3.2 High-performance liquid chromatography
		14.5.4 Atomic spectroscopy
			14.5.4.1 Atomic absorption spectroscopy
			14.5.4.2 Inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy
	14.6 Chemical sensors in water pollutant detection
		14.6.1 Introduction
		14.6.2 Sensors and transducers
		14.6.3 Chemical sensors
	14.7 Electrochemical sensors in water pollutant detection
		14.7.1 Introduction
		14.7.2 Electrochemical transducers
		14.7.3 Piezoelectric transducers
	14.8 Optical biosensors for water pollution detection
		14.8.1 Introduction
		14.8.2 Recognition elements for chemical sensors and biosensors
		14.8.3 Optical biosensors
		14.8.4 Advantages and disadvantages of optical biosensors
		14.8.5 Applications of optical biosensors
			14.8.5.1 Detection of organic materials
			14.8.5.2 Detection of heavy metals
			14.8.5.3 Detection of microorganisms
		14.8.6 New trends in optical biosensors sensing and monitoring
		14.8.7 Uses of nanomaterials for water quality monitoring
		14.8.8 Wireless sensor networks
	14.9 Conclusion
	References
15 Chemical sensing of heavy metals in water
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Heavy metal toxicity ranges and mechanism in living cells
	15.3 Heavy metal measurement methods in water and their performance
		15.3.1 Electrochemical sensors
		15.3.2 Optical sensors
		15.3.3 SERS sensors
		15.3.4 Other sensors
	15.4 Current trends in heavy metal monitoring
	15.5 Current limitations and future prospective
	15.6 Conclusion
	References
16 Chemical sensing of food phenolics and antioxidant capacity
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Conventional methods for the determination of total phenolics and antioxidant capacity
	16.3 Novel sensing methods of total phenolics and antioxidant capacity
		16.3.1 Optical sensing of polyphenols and antioxidant activity
			16.3.1.1 Gold nanoparticles
			16.3.1.2 Silver nanoparticles
			16.3.1.3 Other metallic nanoparticles
			16.3.1.4 Quantum dots
		16.3.2 Electrochemical sensing of polyphenols and antioxidant activity
			16.3.2.1 Cyclic voltammetry
			16.3.2.2 Differential pulse voltammetry
			16.3.2.3 Square-wave voltammetry
		16.3.3 Nanomaterial-based enzyme electrodes
		16.3.4 Nanomaterial-based DNA electrodes
	16.4 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
17 Chemical sensing of pesticides in water
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Colorimetric sensors for detection of pesticides
	17.3 Fluorescent sensors for detection of pesticides
	17.4 Raman sensors for detection of pesticides
	17.5 Electrochemical sensors for detection of pesticides
	17.6 Chemiluminescent sensors for detection of pesticides
	17.7 Electrochemiluminescent sensors for detection of pesticides
	17.8 Piezoelectric sensors for detection of pesticides
	17.9 Conclusion and future perspectives
	References
18 Chemical sensors and biosensors for soil analysis: principles, challenges, and emerging applications
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Detection of soil nutrients
	18.3 Detection of pH
	18.4 Detection of soil moisture
	18.5 Detection of organic matter
	18.6 Detection of inorganic pollutants
	18.7 Soil-borne disease using a microbial biosensor
	18.8 Challenges and future perspectives
	18.9 Conclusion
	References
19 Recent advances in sensor and biosensor technologies for adulteration detection
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Adulteration: a global scam and health threat
		19.2.1 Spectrum of adulterants and associated products most vulnerable to adulteration
			19.2.1.1 Food
				19.2.1.1.1 Milk
				19.2.1.1.2 Meat
				19.2.1.1.3 Edible oils
				19.2.1.1.4 Honey
				19.2.1.1.5 Culinary spices and herbs
			19.2.1.2 Herbal medicines and drugs
			19.2.1.3 Cosmetics
			19.2.1.4 Fuels
			19.2.1.5 Other industrial products
		19.2.2 Adulteration: major concern for health, economy, and environment
	19.3 Conventional analytical techniques for adulterants detection
	19.4 Recent trends in adulteration detection
		19.4.1 Why sensors and biosensors for adulteration detection?
		19.4.2 Sensors for adulterants detection
		19.4.3 Biosensors for adulterants detection
		19.4.4 Electronic noses/tongues for adulterants detection
		19.4.5 Other sensing strategies
	19.5 Conclusions and remarks
	References
20 Biosensing technology in food production and processing
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Biosensors and food quality
		20.2.1 Antioxidant capacity assessment
		20.2.2 Screening of food-grade ingredients and additives
		20.2.3 Food authenticity assessment
		20.2.4 Freshness evaluation of food products
		20.2.5 Quality monitoring of wine
	20.3 Biosensors and food safety
		20.3.1 Food allergens
		20.3.2 Antibiotics in animal-based food products
		20.3.3 Detection of foodborne pathogens
		20.3.4 Assessment of biotoxins
		20.3.5 Determination of toxic chemicals
	20.4 Future prospectives
	20.5 Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
	References
21 Sensors for aerial, automotive, and robotic applications
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Optical sensors
		21.2.1 Visual cameras
		21.2.2 Infrared cameras
		21.2.3 Laser-based sensors
	21.3 Inertial sensors
		21.3.1 Accelerometers
		21.3.2 Gyroscopes
	21.4 Radio frequency sensors
		21.4.1 Antennas
		21.4.2 Receivers
		21.4.3 Radars
	21.5 Magnetic and acoustic sensors
		21.5.1 Magnetometers
		21.5.2 Active acoustic sensors
		21.5.3 Passive acoustic sensors
	21.6 Timing sources
	21.7 Final remarks
	References
22 Challenges and future aspects of sensor technology
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Technology drivers
		22.2.1 Nanotechnology
		22.2.2 Sensor matrix and fabrication
		22.2.3 Flexible electronics
		22.2.4 Low power electronics and energy harvesting
		22.2.5 Sensor networks
		22.2.6 Smart phones
		22.2.7 Artificial intelligence
		22.2.8 Internet of things
	22.3 Commercialization
		22.3.1 Regulatory issues
		22.3.2 Markets
	22.4 In conclusion
	References
	Further reading
		Nanomaterials and sensors
		Sensor networks
		Paper-based sensors
		Wearable sensors
23 Sensor commercialization and global market
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Trends in sensing technologies
		23.2.1 Microsystem technology and application
		23.2.2 Multisensing technology and applications
		23.2.3 Wireless systems and applications
	23.3 Sensing research and development
	23.4 Commercialization pathway
		23.4.1 Design and modeling
		23.4.2 Prototyping
		23.4.3 Testing and reliability
		23.4.4 Final product realization and marketing
	23.5 Sensors in various industrial areas and global market shares
	23.6 Conclusion
	References
Index