Advanced Nano-Bio Technologies for Water and Soil Treatment (Applied Environmental Science and Engineering for a Sustainable Future)

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: Reductive Technologies
	Chapter 1: Geochemical Principles of Reductive Remediation Processes
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Stability of Redox Conditions
		1.3 Quantitative Expression of Redox Potential
		1.4 Stability of Water and Eh-pH Diagrams
		1.5 Problems of Measurement and Interpretation of Redox Potentials
		1.6 Geochemical Processes in Water
		1.7 The Principle of Remedial Reduction Technologies
		1.8 Principle of nZVI Application
			1.8.1 Sequential Hydrogenolysis
			1.8.2 Reductive β-Elimination
		References
	Chapter 2: Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron Particles for Water Treatment: From Basic Principles to Field-Scale Applications
		2.1 Groundwater and Soil Contamination as a Worldwide Problem and Opportunity for Nanotechnologies
		2.2 Chemical Pathways of Pollutants Removal by Zerovalent Iron
		2.3 Modification of nZVI Particles and Enhancement of Their Reactivity
			2.3.1 Electrostatic and Steric Stabilization
			2.3.2 Bimetallic Particles
			2.3.3 Emulsification
			2.3.4 Using Electrokinetics
			2.3.5 nZVI Supported on Various Materials
		2.4 Remediation Using nZVI
		References
	Chapter 3: Other Chemical Reductive Methods
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Reduction of Hexavalent Chromium by Sodium Dithionite
			3.2.1 Site Description
			3.2.2 Laboratory Tests
			3.2.3 Operational Application
		3.3 Reduction of Hexavalent Chromium by Metabisulfite
			3.3.1 Pilot Test at the Site
		References
	Chapter 4: Combination of Electrokinetics and nZVI Remediation
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Electrokinetic Remediation
			4.2.1 Basic Principles of the Action of an Electric Field on Water Parameters
			4.2.2 Aquarium Test
			4.2.3 Site Application of DC in Horice
		4.3 Synergic Action of nZVI and a DC Field
			4.3.1 Laboratory Reactor Test
			4.3.2 Field Application of the Combined Method
				4.3.2.1 Evaluation of the pH Course
				4.3.2.2 Evaluation of the Course of Eh
				4.3.2.3 Evaluation of the Course of Total ClE
				4.3.2.4 Changes in Geochemical Conditions
		References
	Chapter 5: Field Study I: In Situ Chemical Reduction Using Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron Materials to Degrade Chlorinated Hydroca...
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Materials and Methods
			5.2.1 Site Description
			5.2.2 Methodology of Groundwater Monitoring and Analytical Methods
				5.2.2.1 NANOFER Star
				5.2.2.2 NZVI-C3
			5.2.3 Methodology of Zero-Valent Iron Nanoparticles Applications
		5.3 Results
			5.3.1 NANOFER Star
			5.3.2 NZVI-C3
			5.3.3 Nanocomposite with Carboxymethyl Cellulose
		5.4 Discussion
			5.4.1 Effects on EH
			5.4.2 Evaluation of the Contaminant Reduction
			5.4.3 Degree of Dechlorination Evaluation
		5.5 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 6: Field Study II: Pilot Application of nZVI/DC-Combined Methods at Aargau Site
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Materials and Methods
		6.3 Tracer Test
		6.4 nZVI Application and System Installation
		6.5 Results
			6.5.1 Physicochemical Parameters of Groundwater
			6.5.2 Contamination
			6.5.3 Mass Balance
		6.6 Conclusions
Part II: Oxidative Technologies
	Chapter 7: Introduction to Oxidative Technologies for Water Treatment
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Non-photochemical Oxidative Methods
			7.2.1 Permanganate
			7.2.2 Ozonation
			7.2.3 O3/H2O2
			7.2.4 Fenton and Related Reactions
			7.2.5 Electrochemical Oxidation
			7.2.6 Gamma Radiolysis and Processes with Electron Beams
			7.2.7 Non-thermal Plasma
			7.2.8 Oxidation in Sub- and Supercritical Water
			7.2.9 Electrohydraulic Discharge - Ultrasound
			7.2.10 Persulfate and Sulfate Radical Related Advanced Oxidation Processes
			7.2.11 Zero-Valent Iron
			7.2.12 Ferrate
		7.3 Photochemical Technologies
			7.3.1 Use of Light Irradiation for Water Purification
			7.3.2 Vacuum-Ultraviolet Photolysis of Water
			7.3.3 UV/H2O2
			7.3.4 Photoinduced Ozonation (UV/O3)
			7.3.5 UV/O3/H2O2
			7.3.6 Photo-Fenton Process
			7.3.7 Photoferrioxalate and Other Fe(III) Complexes
			7.3.8 Photo-Fenton and Ozonation
			7.3.9 UV/Chlorine
			7.3.10 UV/Periodate
			7.3.11 UV/Persulfate
			7.3.12 Heterogeneous Photocatalysis
		7.4 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 8: Ferrates as Powerful Oxidants in Water Treatment Technologies
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Synthesis of Ferrates(IV, V, VI)
		8.3 Experimental Methods for the Characterization of As-Prepared Ferrates and Determination of Their Purity
		8.4 Stability of Solid Ferrates at High Temperatures and in a Humid Air
		8.5 Stability of Ferrates in Aqueous Solution
		8.6 Effect of Buffering Inorganic Ions on Stability of Ferrates
		8.7 Degradation of Organic Pollutants by Ferrate
		8.8 Removal of Heavy Metals and Metalloids by Ferrates
		8.9 Disinfection Properties of Ferrates
		References
	Chapter 9: Radical Reactions and Their Application for Water Treatment
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Chlorine Species
		9.3 Ozone and Hydrogen Peroxide Related AOPs
		9.4 Non-consensual Radical Mechanisms
		9.5 Persulfates Chemistry
		References
	Chapter 10: Photo-oxidation Technologies for Advanced Water Treatment
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Fundamental Concept Behind the Photocatalyst UV Irradiation Mediated Decontamination
			10.2.1 Reactive Oxidizing Species
				10.2.1.1 Processes by Which Hydroxyl Radicals Are Generated and Their Subsequent Use in Advanced Water Treatment
					H2O2/UV Process
					Photolytic Ozonation (UV/O3)
					Photo-Fenton Chemistry
						Homogeneous Fenton Reaction
						Heterogeneous Fenton Reaction
						Photo-Fenton Reaction
					TiO2/UV Process
		10.3 Use of Photoreactors in Water Treatment
			10.3.1 UV/H2O2 Photoreactor
			10.3.2 Photoreactor for Photolytic Ozonation
			10.3.3 Photo-Fenton Reactor
			10.3.4 Photocatalytic Reactor
		10.4 Case Studies
			10.4.1 Merck & Co.
			10.4.2 BASF
			10.4.3 GlaxoSmithKline
		10.5 Recent Advancements: Nanotechnology Coupled with Photo-Oxidation Process
		10.6 Conclusion and Future Scope
		References
	Chapter 11: The Use of Nanomaterials in Electro-Fenton and Photoelectro-Fenton Processes
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Nanomaterials as Cathodes
			11.2.1 Carbon-Based Nanomaterials
			11.2.2 Chemically Modified Carbonaceous Nanomaterials
			11.2.3 Non-Ferrous Metal-Modified Carbon Nanomaterials
			11.2.4 Fe-Loaded Carbon Nanomaterials
		11.3 Nanomaterials as Anodes
			11.3.1 TiO2-Based Photoanodes
			11.3.2 Electrocatalytic Anodes
		11.4 Suspended Nanocatalysts
		11.5 Nanomaterials in Hybrid Processes
		11.6 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 12: Field Study III: Evidence Gained from Site Studies for the Performance of Ferrate(VI) in Water and Wastewater Trea...
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Materials and Methods
			12.2.1 Pilot-Scale Trials of Using Ferrate(VI) Coagulation before Filtration in Drinking Water Treatment Processes
			12.2.2 Pilot-Scale Trials of Dosing Ferrate(VI) into Crude Sewage for Wastewater Treatment
		12.3 Results and Discussion
			12.3.1 Pilot-Scale Drinking Water Treatment Performance
			12.3.2 Crude Sewage Treatment Performance in the Pilot Plant
		12.4 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 13: Field Study IV: Arsenic Removal from Groundwater by Ferrate with the Concurrent Disinfecting Effect: Semi-Pilot On...
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Characterization of Ferrates Used for the Testing
		13.3 The Principle of the Method for Arsenic Separation by Ferrates
		13.4 Optimal Conditions for Arsenic Separation Set under Laboratory Conditions for the Target Groundwater
			13.4.1 Laboratory-Verified Conditions for as Removal from Groundwater Using Ferrates
		13.5 Description of a Mobile Semi-Pilot Plant for Ferrate Application
		13.6 Test Results of the Mobile Line on Site
			13.6.1 Arsenic Separation
			13.6.2 Microbiological Analysis
			13.6.3 Economic Point of View
			13.6.4 Waste Products
			13.6.5 Limitations of the Method
		13.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 14: Field Study V: Combined Oxidation Technology Using Ferrates (FeIV-VI) and Hydrogen Peroxide for Rapid and Effectiv...
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Methods
			14.2.1 Materials and Chemicals
			14.2.2 Laboratory Tests
			14.2.3 Pilot Field Ex Situ Application
			14.2.4 Pilot Field In Situ Application
		14.3 Results and Discussion
			14.3.1 Results of Laboratory Tests
			14.3.2 Results of Pilot Ex Situ Application
			14.3.3 Results of Pilot In Situ Application
		14.4 Conclusions
		References
Part III: Biotechnologies for Water Treatment
	Chapter 15: Biotechnologies for Water Treatment
		15.1 Biotechnologies for Water Treatment
		References
	Chapter 16: Enzyme-Based Nanomaterials in Bioremediation
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Free Enzymes Used for Bioremediation
		16.3 Why Immobilization?
		16.4 Parameters Influencing Immobilization
		16.5 Basic Immobilization Techniques
		16.6 Nanomaterials
			16.6.1 Nanoparticles
			16.6.2 Novel Nanomaterials
				16.6.2.1 Nanographene
				16.6.2.2 Nanotubes
				16.6.2.3 Nanofibers
				16.6.2.4 Nanogels
				16.6.2.5 Nanoflowers
				16.6.2.6 Mesoporous Nanosphere
		16.7 Application of Nanobiocatalyst for Remediation
		16.8 Nanobiosensors
		16.9 Conclusions and Future Prospects for Nanobiocatalysts
		References
	Chapter 17: Bioelectrochemical Processes for the Treatment of Oil-Contaminated Water and Sediments
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Introduction to Bioelectrochemical Systems
		17.3 Use of Bioelectrochemical Systems for Bioremediation of Oil-Contaminated Environments
		17.4 Microorganisms Involved in Bioremediation with Bioelectrochemical Systems
		17.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Bioelectrochemical Processes
		17.6 Possible Opportunities for Future Development
		References
	Chapter 18: Field Study VI: The Effect of Loading Strategies on Removal Efficiencies of a Hybrid Constructed Wetland Treating ...
		18.1 Introduction
			18.1.1 Hybrid Constructed Wetlands
			18.1.2 CWs for Treatment of Agro-Industrial Wastewaters
			18.1.3 Emerging Pollutants and CWs
		18.2 Materials and Methods
			18.2.1 Experimental Plant Description
			18.2.2 CW Performance Evaluation
			18.2.3 NSAIDs Removal Evaluation
		18.3 Results and Discussion
			18.3.1 Performance of the Hybrid Constructed Wetland
			18.3.2 Elimination of NSAIDs in Hybrid CW Chrmce
		18.4 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 19: Field Study VII: Field Study of Three Different Injectable Oxygen Sources to Enhance Mono-Aromatic Solvents In Sit...
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Materials and Methods
			19.2.1 The Locality
			19.2.2 Site Investigation
			19.2.3 Remediation Pilot Test Setup
			19.2.4 Monitoring
			19.2.5 Groundwater Samples
			19.2.6 In Situ Microcosms for Measurement of the Microbiological Populations in Soil
			19.2.7 Analytical Methods
		19.3 Results and Discussion
			19.3.1 Calcium Peroxide
				19.3.1.1 Physicochemical Parameters During the Remediation Pilot Test
				19.3.1.2 Contaminant Concentrations Throughout the Test
				19.3.1.3 Microbial Biomass
			19.3.2 Modified Calcium Peroxide
				19.3.2.1 Physicochemical Parameters During the Remediation Pilot Test
				19.3.2.2 Contaminant Concentrations Throughout the Test
				19.3.2.3 Microbial Biomass
			19.3.3 Gelatinous Hydrogen Peroxide
				19.3.3.1 Physicochemical Parameters During the Remediation Pilot Test
				19.3.3.2 Contaminant Concentrations Throughout the Test
				19.3.3.3 Microbial Biomass
		19.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 20: Nano-Bioremediation: Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron for Inorganic and Organic Contamination
		20.1 Introduction-Two Field Studies
		20.2 Locality 1
			20.2.1 Sampling and Site Monitoring
			20.2.2 Pilot Application of nZVI and Subsequential Whey Injection
			20.2.3 Evolution of Physicochemical Parameters and Concentration of Contaminants
			20.2.4 Microbial and Ecotoxicological Assessment of Both Pilot Test Phases
		20.3 Locality 2
			20.3.1 Sampling and Site Monitoring
			20.3.2 Application of Combined Nano-Biotechnology
			20.3.3 Monitoring of Physicochemical Parameters and Levels of Contamination
			20.3.4 Microbes and Their Role in the Whole Nano-Bioremediation Process
		20.4 Conclusion
		References
Part IV: Biotechnologies for Soil Treatment
	Chapter 21: Biotechnologies for Soil Treatment
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 Bioremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons
		21.3 Biodegradation of Persistent Organic Pollutants
		21.4 Nanobioremediation
		21.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 22: Mycoremediation of Contaminated Soils
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Ligninolytic Fungi and Their Enzymes
		22.3 Mycoremediation and White-Rot Fungi
		22.4 Chlorinated Aromatic Pollutants
			22.4.1 Polychlorinated Biphenyls
			22.4.2 Chlorinated Dioxins and Furans
		22.5 Non-chlorinated Aromatic Pollutants
			22.5.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
		22.6 Pilot- and Field-Scale Mycoremediation
		22.7 The Potentialities and Drawbacks of Soil Mycoremediation
		22.8 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 23: Composting Practices for the Remediation of Matrices Contaminated by Recalcitrant Organic Pollutants
		23.1 Introduction
			23.1.1 Background on Waste Streams and Management: Biowaste and Hazardous Waste
		23.2 General Principles of Composting of Organic Wastes
			23.2.1 Outline of the Composting Process
			23.2.2 Temperature-Dependent Stages of Composting
			23.2.3 Factors Affecting the Composting Process
			23.2.4 Composting Systems
		23.3 Composting Practices for the Bioremediation of Solid Wastes Contaminated with Recalcitrant Organic Pollutants
			23.3.1 Regulatory Conditions
			23.3.2 Contaminant Removal in the Course of the Co-composting Process-Factors and Mechanisms
				23.3.2.1 Sorption Mechanisms
				23.3.2.2 Biodegradation
				23.3.2.3 Microbial Communities
			23.3.3 Co-composting Applications
				23.3.3.1 Co-composting of Organic Contaminants
				23.3.3.2 Substances of Petroleum Origin
				23.3.3.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
				23.3.3.4 Explosives
				23.3.3.5 Pesticides
				23.3.3.6 Micropollutants
		23.4 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 24: Modern Bioremediation Approaches: Use of Biosurfactants, Emulsifiers, Enzymes, Biopesticides, GMOs
		24.1 Introduction
		24.2 Perspectives of the Use of Synthetic Surfactants and Biosurfactants in Remediation Protocols
			24.2.1 Surfactant Properties and Types
			24.2.2 Synthetic Surfactants vs. Biosurfactants
			24.2.3 Specific Properties of Biosurfactants
			24.2.4 Application Potential of Biosurfactants
				24.2.4.1 Treatment of the Sites Contaminated by Organic Pollutants
				24.2.4.2 Treatment of Sites Contaminated with Heavy Metals
				24.2.4.3 Treatment of Sites Co-contaminated with Heavy Metals and Hydrocarbons
				24.2.4.4 Long-Term Contaminated Sites-Aged Pollutants
				24.2.4.5 Biosurfactant in Prevention of Soil Contamination
		24.3 Perspectives of Enzymes in Remediation Techniques
			24.3.1 Specifics of the Use of Enzymes for Soil Bioremediation
			24.3.2 Evaluation of Using Enzymes for Bioremediation
			24.3.3 Application Potential of Enzymes in Bioremediation
				24.3.3.1 Treatment of Organic Pollutants
				24.3.3.2 Detoxification of Heavy Metals
				24.3.3.3 Enzyme-Enhanced (Bio)Remediation
				24.3.3.4 Enhanced Applications of Enzymes
			24.3.4 Enzymes in Prevention and Detection of Contamination
		24.4 Perspectives of Using Genetically Modified Organisms in Bioremediation Techniques
			24.4.1 Use of GMO in Bioremediation (Introduction into the Environment)
				24.4.1.1 Genetically Modified Microorganisms
				24.4.1.2 Genetically Modified Plants
			24.4.2 Production of Useful Chemicals for Remediation Technologies by GMOs (Contained Use)
			24.4.3 GMOs in Prevention of Contamination
		24.5 Biopesticides
		References
	Chapter 25: Field Study IX: Pilot-Scale Composting of PAH-Contaminated Materials: Two Different Approaches
		25.1 Introduction
		25.2 Materials and Methods
		25.3 Results
			25.3.1 Treatment 1
			25.3.2 Treatment 2
		25.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 26: Field Study X: Oil Waste Processing Using Combination of Physical Pretreatment and Bioremediation
		26.1 Introduction
		26.2 Feasibility Lab Test of Bioremediation
		26.3 Pilot-Scale Test of Bioremediation
			26.3.1 Results
		26.4 Pilot-Scale Test of Physical Pretreatment
		26.5 Dense Media Separation (DMS) Technology
		26.6 Conclusion
		References
Part V: Ecotoxicology of Both Environmental Pollutants and Nanomaterials Used for Remediation
	Chapter 27: Ecotoxicology of Environmental Pollutants
		27.1 Introduction
		27.2 Biological Effects of Environmental Pollutants
		27.3 Principles of Ecotoxicity Testing
		27.4 Prospective Assessment: Ecotoxicity of Chemicals
		27.5 Retrospective Assessment: Ecotoxicology of Contaminated Samples
		27.6 Ecotoxicity of Major Pollutant Classes
			27.6.1 Crude Oil, Oil, Petrol, Gasoline
			27.6.2 Benzene
			27.6.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
			27.6.4 Phenols
			27.6.5 Halogenated Hydrocarbons (HHCs)
				27.6.5.1 Halogenated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons (HACs)
				27.6.5.2 Halogenated (Monocyclic) Aromatic Hydrocarbons
				27.6.5.3 Polychlorinated Dibenzo-P-Dioxins and -Furans (PCDD/Fs)
				27.6.5.4 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
				27.6.5.5 Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs)
			27.6.6 Toxic Metals
				27.6.6.1 Mercury
				27.6.6.2 Cadmium, Lead, and Copper
			27.6.7 Synthetic Polymers and Additives
			27.6.8 Micropollutants, Emerging Contaminants, Currently Used Pesticides
		References
	Chapter 28: Ecotoxicity of Nanomaterials Used for Remediation
		28.1 Introduction
		28.2 Toxicity of Particles
			28.2.1 Ageing and Other Time-Dependent Modifications of Toxicity
		28.3 Choice of Test Organisms
			28.3.1 Endpoint Selection
			28.3.2 Trophic Interactions
		28.4 Standardized or Non-standardized Tests?
			28.4.1 Standardized Testing Methods
			28.4.2 Fe-Based Nanoparticles Exempt from Nano-Fear
			28.4.3 Ecotoxicity Does Not Equal Risk
		References
Part VI: Future Prospects
	Chapter 29: Future Prospects for Treating Contaminants of Emerging Concern in Water and Soils/Sediments
		29.1 Sources and Characteristics of Contaminants of Emerging Concern in Water and Soils/Sediments
		29.2 Treatment of Inorganic/Organic CECs in Waters and Soils/Sediments
		29.3 Potential Solutions
			29.3.1 Physicochemical Processes
			29.3.2 Biological Processes
		29.4 Research Needs
		References
Part VII: Technical Chapters
	Chapter 30: Tool I: Characterization of nZVI Mobility in 1D and Cascade Columns by Ferromagnetic Susceptibility Sensor
		30.1 Introduction
		30.2 One-Dimensional Column Device
		30.3 Cascade Column as an Advanced Alternative for Mobility Experiments
		References
	Chapter 31: Tool II: Membrane Interface Probe
		31.1 Introduction
		31.2 Membrane Interface Probe (MIP)
		31.3 Results from the Field
		References
	Chapter 32: Tool III: Fracturing for Enhanced Delivery of In Situ Remediation Substances in Contaminated Sediments
		32.1 Introduction
		32.2 Pneumatic Fracturing
		32.3 Hydraulic Fracturing
		32.4 Feasibility Limits of Fracturing Methods
		32.5 Fracturing Feasibility Risks
		32.6 Fracturing in Remediation Applications
		References
	Chapter 33: Tool IV: Monitoring of nZVI Migration and Fate in the Groundwater Conditions
		33.1 Introduction
		33.2 Sampling Procedure
		33.3 Methods for Nzvi Tracing
			33.3.1 Indirect Methods
				33.3.1.1 pH
				33.3.1.2 ORP
				33.3.1.3 Magnetic Susceptibility
				33.3.1.4 X-Ray Fluorescence
				33.3.1.5 Hydrogen Evolution
				33.3.1.6 Fe Concentration
				33.3.1.7 Tracer Concentration
				33.3.1.8 Concentration of Contaminants and Their Degradation Products
			33.3.2 Direct Methods
				33.3.2.1 ICP-MS-Based Techniques
				33.3.2.2 Electron Microscopy
				33.3.2.3 X-Ray Powder Diffraction
				33.3.2.4 Mössbauer Spectroscopy
		References
	Chapter 34: Tool V: Microbiological Methods for Monitoring nZVI Performance in Groundwater Conditions
		34.1 Introduction
		34.2 Cultivation
		34.3 Fluorescence Microscopy
		34.4 Phospholipid Fatty Acid (PLFA) Analysis
		34.5 Molecular Biology Approaches
		References