A History of Greece, Volume 08 of 12, originally published in 1850

Cover......Page 1
Frontmatter......Page 6
PREFACE......Page 8
Contents......Page 10
Rally of Athens, during the year after the defeat at Syracuse. b.c. 412......Page 26
Commencement of the conspiracy of the Four Hundred at Athens---Alkibiadês......Page 27
He escapes, retires to Tissaphernês, and becomes adviser of the Persians......Page 28
He advises the satrap to assist neither of the Grecian parties heartily---but his advice leans towards Athens, with a view to his own restoration......Page 29
Alkibiadês acts as negotiator for Tissaphernês at Magnesia......Page 30
Diminution of the rate of pay furnished by Tissaphernês to the Peloponnesians......Page 31
Alkibiadês opens correspondence with the Athenian officers at Samos. He originates the scheme of an oligarchical revolution at Athens......Page 33
Conspiracy arranged between the Athenian officer and Alkibiadês......Page 34
Oligarchical Athenians---the hetæries or political clubs. Peisander is sent to push forward the conspiracy at Athens......Page 36
Credulity of the oligarchical conspirators......Page 37
Opposition of Phrynichus at Samos to the conspirators and to Alkibiadês......Page 38
Manoeuvres and counter-manoeeuvres of Phrynichus and Alkibiadês......Page 41
Proceedings of Peisander at Athens---strong opposition among the people both to the conspiracy and to the restoration of Alkibiadês......Page 43
Unwilling vote of the assembly to relinquish their democracy, under the promise of Persian aid for the war. Peisander is sent back to negotiate with Alkibiadês......Page 45
Peisander brings the oligarchical clubs at Athens into organised action against the democracy......Page 46
Peisander leaves Athens for Samos---Antiphon takes the management of the oligarchical conspiracy---Theramenês and Phrynichus......Page 49
Military operations near the Asiatic coast......Page 51
Negotiations of Peisander with Alkibiadês......Page 52
Tricks of Alkibiadês---he exaggerates his demands with a view of breaking off the negotiation---indignation of the oligarchs against him......Page 53
Reconciliation between Tissaphemês and the Peloponnesians......Page 54
Third convention concluded between them......Page 56
Third convention compared with the two preceding......Page 58
Peisander and his colleagues persist in the oligarchical conspiracy, without Alkibiadês......Page 59
They attempt to subvert the democracy at Samos---assassination of Hyperbolus and others......Page 61
The democracy at Samos is sustained by the Athenian armament......Page 63
The Athenian Parali---defeat of the oligarchical conspiracy at Samos......Page 64
The Paralus is sent to Athens with the news......Page 65
Progress of the oligarchical conspiracy at Athens---dexterous management of Antiphon......Page 66
Assassination of the popular speakers by Antiphon and the oligarchical party......Page 67
Return of Peisander to Athens---oligarchical government established in several of the allied cities......Page 70
Consummation of the revolution at Athens---last public assembly at Kolônus......Page 71
Abolition of the Graphê Paranomôn......Page 73
Fictitious and nominal aggregate called the Five Thousand......Page 74
The Four Hundred install themselves in the senate-house, expelling the senators by armed force......Page 76
Remarks on this revolution......Page 78
Attachment to constitutional forms at Athens---use made of this sentiment by Antiphon, to destroy the constitution......Page 81
Demagogues the indispensable counterpoise and antithesis to the oligarchs......Page 82
Proceedings of the Four Hundred in the government......Page 84
They send envoys to the camp at Samos......Page 85
First news of the revolution is conveyed to the camp by Chæreas---strong sentiment in the camp against the Four Hundred......Page 87
Ardent democratical manifestation, and emphatic oath, taken both by the Athenian armament at Samos and by the Samians......Page 88
The Athenian democracy is reconstituted by the armament---public assembly of the soldiers---new generals chosen......Page 89
Alkibiadês opens correspondence with the democratical armament at Samos......Page 92
Alkibiadês comes to Samos, on the invitation of the armament......Page 93
Confidence placed by the armament in his language and promises---they choose him one of their generals......Page 95
New position of Alkibiadês---present turn of his ambition......Page 96
The envoys of the Four Hundred reach Samos---are indignantly sent back by the armament......Page 97
Eagerness of the armament to sail to Peiræus---is discountenanced by Alkibiadês---his answer to the envoys......Page 99
Dissuasive advice of Alkibiadês---how far it is to be commended as sagacious......Page 100
Return of the envoys of the Four Hundred from Samos to Athens---bad prospects of the oligarchy......Page 102
Mistrust and discord among the Four Hundred themselves. An opposition party formed under Theramenês......Page 104
Theramenês demands that the Five Thousand shall be made a reality......Page 108
Measures of Antiphon and the Four Hundred---their solicitations to Sparta---construction of the fort of Eetioneia, for the admission of a Spartan garrison......Page 110
Unaccountable backwardness of the Lacedæmonians......Page 112
Assassination of Phrynichus---Lacedæmonian fleet hovering near Peiræus......Page 114
Rising at Athens against the Four Hundred---demolition of the new fort at Eetioneia......Page 116
Decline of the Four Hundred---concessions made by them---renewal of the public Assembly......Page 119
Lacedæmonian fleet threatens Peiræus---passes by to Euboea......Page 121
Naval battle near Eretria---Athenians defeated---Euboea revolts......Page 122
Dismay at Athensher ruin inevitable, if the Lacedæmonians had acted with energy......Page 124
The Four Hundred are put down---the democracy in substance restored......Page 126
Moderation of political antipathies, and patriotic spirit, now prevalent......Page 130
The Five Thousand---a number never exactly realised......Page 131
were soon enlarged into universal citizenship......Page 132
Restoration of the complete democracy, all except pay......Page 133
Psephism of Dêmophantus---demoeratical oath prescribed......Page 134
Flight of most of the leaders of the Four Hundred to Dekeleia......Page 136
Theramenês stands forward to accuse the remaining leaders of the Four Hundred, especially in reference to the fort at Eetioneia, and the embassy to Sparta......Page 137
Antiphon tried, condemned, and executed......Page 141
Treatment of the Four Hundred generally......Page 143
Favourable judgment of Thucydidês on the conduct of the Athenians......Page 146
Oligarchy at Athens, democracy at Samos---contrast......Page 148
Peloponnesian fleet---revolt of Abydos from Athens......Page 151
Strombichidês goes from Chios to the Hellespont---improved condition of the Chians......Page 152
Discontent in the Peloponnesian fleet at Milêtus......Page 153
Strombichidês returns from Chios to Samos......Page 154
Peloponnesian squadron and force at the Hellespont---revolt of Byzantium from Athens......Page 155
Discontent and meeting against Astyochus at Milêtus......Page 156
The Spartan commissioner Lichas enjoins the Milesians to obey Tissaphernês---discontent of the Milesians......Page 157
Mindarus supersedes Astyochus as admiral......Page 158
Phenician fleet at Aspendus---duplicity of Tissaphernês......Page 159
Alkibiadês at Aspendus---his double game between Tissaphernês and the Athenians......Page 160
Phenicians sent back from Aspendus without action---motives of Tissaphernês......Page 161
Mindarus leaves Milêtus with his fleet---goes to Chios---Thrasyllus and the Athenian fleet at Lesbos......Page 162
Mindarus eludes Thrasyllus, and reaches the Hellespont......Page 163
Athenian Hellespontine squadron escapes from Sestos in the night......Page 167
Thrasyllus and the Athenian fleet at the Hellespont......Page 170
Battle of Kynossêma---victory of the Athenian fleet......Page 172
Rejoicing at Athens for the victory......Page 174
Bridge across the Euripus, joining Euboea with Boeotia......Page 175
Revolt of Kyzikus......Page 176
Zeal of Pharnabazus against Athens---importance of Persian money......Page 177
Tissaphernês again courts the Peloponnesians......Page 178
Alkibiadês returns from Aspendus to Samos......Page 181
Farther combats at the Hellespont......Page 182
Theramenês sent out with reinforcements from Athens......Page 183
Renewed troubles at Korkyra......Page 185
Alkibiadês is seized by Tissaphernês and confined at Sardis......Page 186
Escape of Alkibiadês---concentration of the Athenian fleet---Mindarus besieges Kyzikus......Page 187
Battle of Kyzikus---victory of the Athenians---Mindarus is slain, and the whole Peloponnesian fleet taken......Page 188
Discouragement of the Spartans---proposition to Athens for peace......Page 189
The Lacedæmonian Endius at Athens---his propositions for peace......Page 190
Grounds of the opposition of Kleophon......Page 191
Question of policy as it then stood, between war and peace......Page 192
Strenuous aid of Pharnabazus to the Peloponnesians---Alkibiadês and the Athenian fleet at the Bosphorus......Page 195
The Athenians occupy Chrysopolis, and levy toll on the ships passing through the Bosphorus......Page 196
The Lacedæmonians are expelled from Thasus......Page 197
Klearchus the Lacedæmonian is sent to Byzantium......Page 198
Thrasyllus sent from Athens to Ionia......Page 199
Pylus is retaken by the Lacedæmonians---disgrace of the Athenian Anytus for not relieving it......Page 201
Capture of Chalkêdon by Alkibiadês and the Athenians......Page 203
Convention concluded by the Athenians with Pharnabazus......Page 204
Byzantium captured by the Athenians......Page 206
Pharnabazus conveys some Athenian envoys towards Susa, to make terms with the Great King......Page 207
Cyrus the younger---effects of his coming down to Asia Minor......Page 209
Pharnabazus detains the Athenian envoys......Page 211
Lysander---Lacedæmonian admiral in Asia......Page 212
Proceedings of the preceding admiral, Kratesippidas......Page 214
Lysander visits Cyrus at Sardis......Page 215
His dexterous policy---he acquires the peculiar esteem of Cyrus......Page 216
Factions organized by Lysander among the Asiatic cities......Page 219
Proceedings of Alkibiadês in Thrace and Asia......Page 220
His arrival at Athens......Page 221
Feelings and details connected with his arrival......Page 222
Unanimous welcome with which he is received......Page 223
Effect produced upon Alkibiadês......Page 224
Sentiment of the Athenians towards him......Page 225
Disposition to refrain from dwelling on his previous wrongs, and to give him a new trial......Page 227
He protects the celebration of the Eleusinian mysteries by land, against the garrison of Dekeleia......Page 228
Fruitless attempt of Agis to surprise Athens......Page 229
Alkibiadês sails with an armament to Asia---ill-success at Andros---entire failure in respect to hopes from Persia......Page 231
Lysander at Ephesus---his cautious policy, refusing to fight---disappointment of Alkibiadês......Page 232
Alkibiadês goes to Photæa, leaving his fleet under the command of Antiochus---oppression by Alkibiadês at Kymê......Page 233
Complaints of the Kymæans at Athens---defeat of Antiochus at Notium during the absence of Alkibiadês......Page 234
Dissatisfaction and complaint in the armament against Alkibiadês......Page 235
Murmur and accusation against him transmitted to Athens......Page 236
Alteration of sentiment at Athens---displeasure of the Athenians against him......Page 237
Reasonable grounds of such alteration and displeasure......Page 238
Different behaviour towards Nikias and towards Alkibiadês......Page 240
Konon and his colleagues---capture and liberation of the Rhodian Dorieus by the Athenians......Page 241
Kallikratidas supersedes Lysander---his noble character......Page 244
Murmurs and ill-will against Kallikratidas---energy and rectitude whereby he represses them......Page 245
His appeal to the Milesians---Pan-hellenic feelings......Page 246
He fits out a commanding fleet---his success at Lesbos---he liberates the captives and the Athenian garrison at Methymna......Page 248
Noble character of this proceeding---exalted Pan-hellenic patriotism of Kallikratidas......Page 249
He blocks up Konon and the Athenian fleet at Mitylênê......Page 251
Triumphant position of Kallikratidas......Page 252
Hopeless condition of Konon---his stratagem to send news to Athens and entreat relief......Page 253
Kallikratidas defeats the squadron of Diomedon......Page 255
Prodigious effort of the Athenians to relieve Konon---large Athenian fleet equipped and sent to Arginusæ......Page 256
Kallikratidas withdraws most of his fleet from Mitylênê, leaving Eteonikus to continue the blockade......Page 257
The two fleets marshaled for battle. Comparative nautical skill, reversed since the beginning of the war......Page 258
Battle of Arginusæ---defeat of the Lacedæmonians---death of Kallikratidas......Page 259
It would have been better for Greece, and even for Athens, if Kallikratidas had been victor at Arginusæ......Page 260
Safe escape of Eteonikus and his fleet from Mitylênê to Chios......Page 262
Joy of Athens for the victory---indignation arising from the fact that the Athenian seamen on the disabled ships had not been picked up after the battle......Page 263
State of the facts about the disabled ships, and the men left in them......Page 265
Justifiable wrath and wounded sympathy of the Athenians---extreme excitement among the relatives of the drowned men......Page 267
Examination of the generals before the Senate and the people at Athens......Page 269
Effect of the accusation by Theramenês upon the assembly......Page 271
Defence of the generals---they affirm that they had commissioned Theramenês himself to undertake the duty......Page 273
Reason why the generals had not mentioned this commission in their despatch......Page 274
Different account given by Diodorus......Page 275
Probable version of the way in which the facts really occurred......Page 277
Justification of the generals---how far valid?---The alleged storm. Escape of Eteonikus......Page 280
Feelings of the Athenian public---how the case stood before them---decision adjourned to a future assembly......Page 283
Occurrence of the festival of Apaturia---the great family solemnity of the Ionic race......Page 285
Burst of feeling at the Apaturia---misrepresented by Xenophon......Page 286
Proposition of Kallixenus in the senate against the generals---adopted and submitted to the public assembly......Page 289
Injustice of the resolution,---by depriving the generals of the customary securities for judicial trial. Psephism of Kannônus......Page 290
Excitement of the assembly---constitutional impediment overruled......Page 293
The Prytanes refuse to put the question---their opposition overruled, all except that of Sokratês......Page 296
Speech of Euryptolemus......Page 297
His amendment is rejected---the proposition of Kallixenus is carried......Page 300
The six generals are condemned and executed......Page 301
Injustice of the proceeding---violation of the democratical maxims and sentiments......Page 302
Earnest repentance of the people soon afterwards---disgrace and end of Kallixenus......Page 303
Causes of the popular excitement......Page 304
Generals---not innocent men......Page 307
Alleged propositions of peace from Sparta to Athens---doubtful......Page 310
Eteonikus at Chios---distress of his seamen---conspiracy suppressed......Page 311
Solicitations from Chios and elsewhere that Lysander should be sent out again......Page 312
Arrival of Lysander at Ephesus---zeal of his partisans---Cyrus......Page 313
Violent revolution at Milêtus by the partisans of Lysander......Page 314
Cyrus goes to visit his dying father---confides his tributes to Lysander......Page 315
Inaction of the Athenian fleet after the battle of Arginusæ. Operations of Lysander......Page 316
Both fleets at the Hellespont......Page 317
Athenian fleet at Ægospotami......Page 318
Battle of Ægospotami---surprise and capture of the entire Athenian fleet......Page 319
Capture of the Athenian commanders, all except Konon......Page 321
Slaughter of the captive generals and prisoners......Page 322
The Athenian fleet supposed to have been betrayed by its own commanders......Page 324
Distress and agony at Athens, when the defeat of Ægospotami was made known there......Page 325
Proceedings of Lysander......Page 326
Miserable condition of the Athenian Kleruchs and of the friends of Athens in the allied dependencies. Suffering in Athens......Page 328
Amnesty proposed by Patrokleidês, and adopted......Page 329
Oath of mutual harmony sworn in the acropolis......Page 330
Arrival of Lysander. Athens is blocked up by sea and land......Page 331
Pretences of Theramenês---he is sent as envoy---his studied delay......Page 332
Misery and famine in Athens---death of Kleophon......Page 334
The famine becomes intolerable---Theramenês is sent to obtain peace on any terms---debate about the terms at Sparta......Page 335
Surrender of Athens---extreme wretchedness---number of deaths from famine......Page 336
Lysander enters Athens---return of the exiles---demolition of the Long Walls---dismantling of Peiræus---fleet given up......Page 337
The exiles and the oligarchical party in Athens---their triumphant behaviour and devotion to Lysander......Page 339
Kritias and other exiles---past life of Kritias......Page 340
Kritias at the head of the oligarchs at Athens......Page 342
Seizure of Strombichidês and other eminent democrats......Page 343
Nomination of the Thirty, under the dictation of Lysander......Page 345
Conquest of Samos by Lysander---oligarchy restored there......Page 347
Triumphant return of Lysander to Sparta---his prodigious ascendency throughout Greece......Page 348
Proceedings of the Thirty at Athens---feelings of oligarchical men like Plato......Page 349
The Thirty begin their executions---Strombichidês and the imprisoned generals put to death---other democrats also......Page 350
Senate appointed by the Thirty---is only trusted to act under their intimidation. Numerous executions without trial......Page 351
The senate began by condemning willingly every one brought before them......Page 352
Discord among the Thirty---dissentient views of Kritias and Theramenês......Page 353
Opposition of Theramenês to these measures---violence and rapacity still farther increased---rich and oligarchical men put to death......Page 354
Plan of Kritias to gain adherents by forcing men to become accomplices in deeds of blood---resistance of Sokratês......Page 356
Terror and discontent in the city---the Thirty nominate a body of Three Thousand as partisan hoplites......Page 358
They disarm the remaining hoplites of the city......Page 359
Murders and spoliations by the Thirty. Seizure of the Metics......Page 360
Seizure of Lysias the rhetor and his brother Polemarchus. The former escapes---the latter is executed......Page 361
Increased exasperation of Kritias and the majority of the Thirty against Theramenês......Page 363
Theramenês is denounced by Kritias in the senate---speech of Kritias......Page 364
Reply of Theramenês......Page 366
Extreme violence of Kritias and the Thirty......Page 368
Condemnation of Theramenês......Page 369
Death of Theramenês---remarks on his character......Page 370
Increased tyranny of Kritias and the Thirty......Page 372
The Thirty forbid intellectual teaching......Page 374
Growing insecurity of the Thirty......Page 376
Gradual alteration of feeling in Greece, since the capture of Athens......Page 377
Demand by the allies of Sparta to share in the spoils of the war---refused by Sparta......Page 378
His overweening ambition---oppressive dominion of Sparta......Page 380
Disgust excited in Greece by the enormities of the Thirty......Page 381
Opposition to Lysander at Sparta---King Pausanias......Page 382
Kallikratidas compared with Lysander......Page 383
Thrasybulus seizes Phylê---repulses the Thirty in their attack......Page 385
Farther success of Thrasybulus---the Thirty retreat to Athens......Page 386
Discord among the oligarchy at Athens---seizure of the Eleusinians......Page 388
Thrasybulus establishes himself in Peiræus......Page 390
The Thirty attack him and are defeated---Kritias is slain......Page 391
Colloquy during the burialtruce---language of Kleokritus......Page 393
Discouragement of the oligarchs at Athens---deposition of the Thirty and appointment of the Ten---the Thirty go to Eleusis......Page 394
The Ten carry on the war against the exiles......Page 396
Increasing strength of Thrasybulus......Page 397
Arrival of Lysander in Attica with a Spartan force......Page 398
Spartan king Pausanias conducts an expedition into Attica: opposed to Lysander......Page 399
His dispositions unfavourable to the oligarchy: reaction against the Thirty......Page 400
Pausanias attacks Peiræus: his partial success......Page 402
Peace-party in Athens---sustained by Pausanias......Page 403
Pacification granted by Pausanias and the Spartan authorities......Page 404
The Spartans evacuate Attica---Thrasybulus and the exiles are restored---harangue of Thrasybulus......Page 406
Capture of Eleusis---entire reunion of Attica---flight of the survivors of the Thirty......Page 407
Miserable condition of Athens during the two preceding years......Page 423
Immediate relief caused by the restoration---unanimous sentiment towards the renewed democracy......Page 424
Amnestytreatment of the Thirty and the Ten......Page 426
Disfranchising proposition of Phormisius......Page 428
The proposition rejected---speech composed by Lysias against it......Page 429
Revision of the laws---the Nomothetæ......Page 430
Decree that no criminal inquiries should be carried back beyond the archonship of Eukleidês---b.c. 403......Page 432
Oath taken by the senate and the dikasts modified......Page 433
Farther precautions to ensure the observance of the amnesty......Page 434
Absence of harsh reactionary feeling, both after the Thirty and after the Four Hundred......Page 436
Generous and reasonable behaviour of the Demos---contrasted with that of the oligarchy......Page 438
Care of the people to preserve the rights of private property......Page 441
The Horsemen or Knights......Page 442
Revision of the laws---Nikomachus......Page 444
Adoption of the fuller Ionic alphabet, in place of the old Attic, for writing up the laws......Page 446
Memorable epoch of the archonship of Eukleidês. The rhetor Lysias......Page 447
Other changes at Athens---abolition of the Board of Hellenotamiæ---restriction of the right of citizenship......Page 448
Honorary reward to Thrasybulus and the exiles......Page 450
Position and views of Alkibiadês in Asia......Page 451
The Lacedæmonians conjointly with Cyrus require Pharnabazus to put him to death......Page 452
Assassination of Alkibiadês by order of Pharnabazus......Page 454
Character of Alkibiadês......Page 455
Extraordinary development of dramatic genius......Page 459
Gradual enlargement of tragedy......Page 460
Abundance of new tragedy at Athens......Page 461
Accessibility of the theatre to the poorest citizens......Page 463
Effect of the tragedies on the public mind of Athens......Page 465
Æschylus, Sophoklês and Euripidês---modifications of tragedy......Page 466
Popularity arising from expenditure of money on the festivals......Page 469
Growth and development of Comedy at Athens......Page 470
Comic poets before Aristophanês---Kratinus, &c.......Page 472
Exposure of citizens by name in Comedy---forbidden for a time---then renewed---Kratês and the milder Comedy......Page 474
Aristophanês......Page 475
Comedy in its effect on the Athenian mind......Page 476
Mistaken estimate of the comic writers, as good witnesses or just critics......Page 479
Aversion of Solon to the drama when nascent......Page 482
Dramatic poetry as compared with the former kinds of poetry......Page 483
Ethical sentiment, interest and debate, infused into the drama......Page 485
Practical value and necessity of rhetorical accomplishments......Page 487
Empedoklês of Agrigentum---first name in the rhetorical movement......Page 490
Zeno of Elea---first name in the dialectical movement......Page 491
Eleatic school---Parmenidês......Page 492
Zeno and Melissus---their dialectic attacks upon the opponents of Parmenidês......Page 493
Zeno at Athens---his conversation both with Periklês and with Sokratês......Page 495
Early manifestation, and powerful efficacy, of the negative arm in Grecian philosophy......Page 496
Rhetoric and dialectics---men of active life and men of speculation---two separate lines of intellectual activity......Page 498
Standing antithesis between these two intellectual classes---vein of ignorance at Athens, hostile to both......Page 500
Gradual enlargement of the field of education at Athens---increased knowledge and capacity of the musical teachers......Page 502
The Sophists---true Greek meaning of that word---invidious sentiment implied in it......Page 504
The name Sophist applied by Plato in a peculiar sense, in his polemics against the eminent paid teachers......Page 506
Misconceptions arising from Plato's peculiar use of the word Sophist......Page 509
Paid teachers or Sophists of the Sokratic age---Protagoras, Gorgias, &c.......Page 510
Plato and the Sophists---two different points of view---the reformer and theorist against the practical teacher......Page 512
The Sophists were professional teachers for active life, like Isokratês and Quintilian......Page 514
Misinterpretations of the dialogues of Plato as carrying evidence against the Sophists......Page 516
The Sophists as paid teachers---no proof that they were greedy or exorbitant---proceeding of Protagoras......Page 518
The Sophists as rhetorical teachers---groundless accusations against them in that capacity, made also against Sokratês, Isokratês and others......Page 520
Thrasymachus---his rhetorical precepts---Prodikus---his discrimination of words analogous in meaning......Page 522
Protagoras---his treatise on Truth---his opinions about the Pagan gods......Page 523
His view of the cognitive process and its relative nature......Page 525
Gorgias---his treatise on physical subjects---misrepresentations of the scope of it......Page 528
They were not a sect or school, with common doctrines or method: they were a profession, with strong individual peculiarities......Page 530
The Athenian character was not really corrupted, between 480 b.c. and 405 b.c.......Page 532
Prodikus---The Choice of Hercules......Page 536
Protagoras---real estimate exhibited of him by Plato......Page 538
Hippias of Elis---how he is represented by Plato......Page 543
Gorgias, Pôlus, and Kalliklês......Page 546
Doctrine advanced by Kalliklês---antisocial......Page 547
Kalliklês is not a Sophist......Page 549
The doctrine put into his mouth could never have been laid down in any public lecture among the Athenians......Page 551
Doctrine of Thrasymachus in the `Republic' of Plato......Page 556
Such doctrine not common to all the Sophists---what is offensive in it is, the manner in which it is put forward......Page 557
Opinion of Thrasymachus afterwards brought out by Glaukon---with less brutality, and much greater force of reason......Page 559
Plato against the Sophists generally. His category of accusation comprehends all society, with all the poets and statesmen......Page 561
It is unjust to try either the Sophists, or the statesmen of Athens, by the standard of Plato......Page 563
Plato distinctly denies that Athenian corruption was to be imputed to the Sophists......Page 564
The Sophists were not teachers of mere words, apart from action......Page 565
General good effect of their teaching upon the youth......Page 567
Great reputation of the Sophists---evidence of respect for intellect and of a good state of public sentiment......Page 568
Different spirit shown towards Sokratês and towards the Sophists......Page 570
Birth and family of Sokratês......Page 571
His physical and moral qualities......Page 572
Xenophon and Plato as witnesses......Page 574
Their pictures of Sokratês are in the main accordant......Page 575
Habits of Sokratês......Page 577
His constant publicity of life and indiscriminate conversation......Page 578
Reason why Sokratês was shown up by Aristophanês on the stage......Page 580
His persuasion of a special religious mission......Page 581
His Dæmon or Genius---other inspirations......Page 584
Oracle from Delphideclaring that no man was wiser than he......Page 586
His mission to test the false conceit of wisdom in others......Page 588
Confluence of the religious motive with the inquisitive and intellectual impulse in his mind---numerous enemies whom he made......Page 590
Intellectual peculiarities of Sokratês......Page 591
He opened ethics as a new subject of scientific discussion......Page 592
Circumstances which turned the mind of Sokratês towards ethical speculations......Page 594
Limits of scientific study as laid down by Sokratês......Page 596
He confines study to human affairs, as distinguished from divine---to man and society......Page 598
Importance of the innovation---multitude of new and accessible phænomena brought under discussion......Page 600
Innovations of Sokratês as to method---dialectic method---inductive discourses---definitions......Page 601
Commencement of analytical consciousness of the mental operations---genera and species......Page 603
Sokratês compared with previous philosophers......Page 605
Great step made by Sokratês in laying the foundation of formal logic, afterwards expanded by Plato, and systematised by Aristotle......Page 608
Dialectical process employed by Sokratês---essential connexion between method and subject......Page 610
Essential connexion also between the dialectic process and the logical distribution of subject-matter---One in Many and Many in One......Page 612
His cross-examining purpose was not confined to noted men, but of universal application......Page 614
Leading ideas which directed the scrutiny of Sokratês---contrast between the special professions and the general duties of social life......Page 616
Platonic dialogues---discussion whether virtue is teachable......Page 618
Conceit of knowledge without real knowledge---universal prevalence of it......Page 619
Such confident persuasion, without science, belonged at that time to astronomy and physics, as well as to the subjects of man and society---it is now confined to the latter......Page 621
Sokratês first lays down the idea of ethical science, comprising the appropriate ethical end with theory and precepts......Page 624
Earnestness with which Sokratês inculcated self-examination---effect of his conversation upon others......Page 626
Preceptorial and positive exhortation of Sokratês chiefly brought out by Xeuophon......Page 631
This was not the peculiarity of Sokratês---his powerful method of stirring up the analytical faculties......Page 632
Negative and indirect scrutiny of Sokratês produced strong thirst, and active efforts, for the attainment of positive truth......Page 633
Inductive process of scrutiny, and Baconian spirit, of Sokratês......Page 636
Sokratic method tends to create minds capable of forming conclusions for themselves---not to plant conclusions readymade......Page 640
The subjects to which they were applied---man and society---essentially required such handling---reason why......Page 641
Real distinction and variance between Sokratês and the Sophists......Page 644
Prodigious efficacy of Sokratês in forming new philosophical minds......Page 645
General theory of Sokratês on ethics---he resolved virtue into knowledge or wisdom......Page 646
This doctrine defective as stating a part for the whole......Page 647
He was led to this general doctrine by the analogy of special professions......Page 650
Constant reference of Sokratês to duties of practice and detail......Page 651
The derivative reasonings of Sokratês were of larger range than his general doctrine......Page 652
Political opinions of Sokratês......Page 653
Long period during which Sokratês exercised his vocation as a public converser......Page 655
Accusation against him by Melêtus, Anytus and Lykon......Page 656
Inevitable unpopularity incurred by Sokratês in his mission......Page 657
It was only from the general toleration of the Athenian democracy and population, that he was allowed to go on so long......Page 658
Private offence of Anytus......Page 660
Unpopularity arising to Sokratês from his connexion with Kritias and Alkibiadês......Page 661
Enmity of the poets and rhetors to Sokratês......Page 663
Indictment---grounds of the accusers---effects of the `Clouds' of Aristophanês, in creating prejudice against Sokratês......Page 664
Accusation of corruption in teaching was partly founded on political grounds......Page 665
Perversion of the poets alleged against him......Page 667
Remarks of Xenophon upon these accusations......Page 668
The charges touch upon the defective point of the Sokratic Ethical theory......Page 669
His political strictures......Page 670
The verdict against Sokratês was brought upon him partly by his own concurrence......Page 671
Small majority by which he was condemned......Page 672
Sokratês defended himself like one who did not care to be acquitted......Page 673
The `Platonic Apology.'......Page 674
Sentiment of Sokratês about death......Page 677
Effect of his defence upon the Dikasts......Page 679
Assertion of Xenophon that Sokratês might have been acquitted if he had chosen it......Page 681
The sentence---how passed in Athenian procedure......Page 682
Sokratês is called upon to propose some counter-penalty against himself---his behaviour......Page 683
Aggravation of feeling in the Dikasts against him in consequence of his behaviour......Page 684
Sentence of death---resolute adherence of Sokratês to his own convictions......Page 685
Satisfaction of Sokratês with the sentence, on deliberate conviction......Page 686
Sokratês in prison for thirty days---he refuses to accept the means of escape---his serene death......Page 687
Originality of Sokratês......Page 689
Views taken of Sokratês as a moral preacher and as a sceptic---the first inadequate---the second incorrect......Page 690
Two points on which Sokratês is systematically negative......Page 694
Method of Sokratês of universal application......Page 695
Condemnation of Sokratês---one of the misdeeds of intolerance......Page 696
Extenuating circumstances---principle of orthodox enforcement recognised generally in ancient times......Page 697
Number of personal enemies made by Sokratês......Page 698
His condemnation brought on by himself......Page 699
The Athenians did not repent it......Page 700