A Grammar of Arabic

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
List of Tables
Collaborating Authors
Abbreviations
Transcription Symbols
Arabic Terminology
Acknowledgments
Introduction
	0.1 Our Approach
	0.2 Our Data
	0.3 Transcription, Transliteration, and Glossing
	0.4 Organization
Chapter 1 Phonology and Orthography
	Introduction
	1.1 Phonology
		1.1.1 Consonants
			1.1.1.1 Traditional Accounts of Consonants
			1.1.1.2 Variation Within Consonantal Classes
			1.1.1.3 Processes Contributing to Consonantal Variation
		1.1.2 Vowels
			1.1.2.1 Vowel Length
			1.1.2.2 Long Vowels /a, I, U/ and /e,/ O/
			1.1.2.3 Short Vowels /a, I, U/
			1.1.2.4 Diphthongization
		1.1.3 Phonotactics and Stress
			1.1.3.1 Syllable Structure in Formal Arabic
			1.1.3.2 Syllable Structure in Spoken Varieties
			1.1.3.3 Consonant Clusters in Juncture
			1.1.3.4 Stress Assignment
		1.1.4 Pause: Waqf
			1.1.4.1 Syntactic Pause
			1.1.4.2 Phonological Pause
	1.2 Orthography
		1.2.1 The Alphabet
			1.2.1.1 Letters as Consonants
			1.2.1.2 Vocalization Symbols
			1.2.1.3 Spellings of ʾalif
			1.2.1.4 Other Orthographic Signs
		1.2.2 Writing and Printing
			1.2.2.1 Voweling/vocalization
			1.2.2.2 Spelling Conventions
			1.2.2.3 Abbreviations
			1.2.2.4 Punctuation
		1.2.3 Arabic in Other Alphabets
			1.2.3.1 Historical Scripts
			1.2.3.2 Contemporary Latin-Based Writing
		1.2.4 Numerals
Chapter 2 Roots, Patterns, and Lexical Innovation
	Introduction
	2.1 Roots
	2.2 Patterns
	2.3 Verbs
		2.3.1 Ground Form Verbs: Faeal, Faeil, Faeul
		2.3.2 The Derived Forms
			2.3.2.1 Patterns II and V: Faeeal and Tafaeeal
			2.3.2.2 Patterns III and VI: Faeal and Tafaeal
			2.3.2.3 Patterns IV and X: .afeal and Istafeal
			2.3.2.4 Patterns VII and VIII: Infaeal and Iftaeal
			2.3.2.5 Patterns IX and XI: Ifeall and Ifeall
		2.3.3 Quadriliteral Patterns
			2.3.3.1 Faefae, Tafaefae (Reduplicated)
			2.3.3.2 Fareal, Tafareal
			2.3.3.3 Faweal, Tafawɛal
			2.3.3.4 Fayɛal, Tafayɛal
			2.3.3.5 Faɛwal, Tafaewal
			2.3.3.6 Faelan, Tafaɛlan
			2.3.3.7 Standalone Quadriliterals
		2.3.4 Extra-Canonical Forms
			2.3.4.1 Patterns XII-XV and Other Non-Standard Patterns
			2.3.4.2 Mixed Standard Patterns
			2.3.4.3 Eroded and Reconstituted Standard Patterns
			2.3.4.4 Diminutive Infixing
			2.3.4.5 Non-Paradigmatic (Rootless) Stems
		2.3.5 Passivization
	2.4 Nouns and Adjectives
		2.4.1 The Maṣdar (Infinitive and Gerund)
			2.4.1.1 Ground Form Maṣdars
			2.4.1.2 Derived-Form Maṣdars
			2.4.1.3 Quadriliteral Maṣdars
			2.4.1.4 The ‘Artificial’ Maṣdar: Al-Maṣdar Aṣ-ṣināɛī
		2.4.2 Participles
			2.4.2.1 Ground Form Active Participles (Ism Al-Fāεil)
			2.4.2.2 Ground Form Passive Participles (Ism Al-mafεūl)
			2.4.2.3 Participles of Other Patterns
		2.4.3 Participle-Like Adjectives
			2.4.3.1 Pattern faεīl
			2.4.3.2 Pattern faεlān
			2.4.3.3 Pattern faɛūl
			2.4.3.4 Patterns faɛl, fiɛl, fuɛl, faɛal, faɛil, faɛul, fuɛul
			2.4.3.5 Levantine mǝfɛel
		2.4.4 Noun Patterns By Semantic Category
			2.4.4.1 Nouns of Place Or Time: mafɛal, mafɛil
			2.4.4.2 Nouns of Instrument: mifɛal(a), mifɛāl
			2.4.4.3 Nouns of Vessel: Mifeal(a) and fiɛāl
			2.4.4.4 Nouns of Manner: fiεla
		2.4.5 Pattern ʾafɛal
			2.4.5.1 Comparative Adjective: afɛal at- tafḍīl (m ʾafɛal, f fuεlā)
		2.4.5.2 Distinctive Sensory Attributes (m ʾafɛal, f faɛlā’, pl fuɛl)
		2.4.6 Suffixation
			2.4.6.1 The Nisba Suffixes -Iyy ~ -I
			2.4.6.2 Individuating and Evaluative Functions of tāʾ marbūṭa
			2.4.6.2.1 Sex-Based Feminine Gender Marking With al- waḥda
			2.4.6.3 Dual Suffixes -Ani, -Ayn(i)
			2.4.6.4 Sound Plural Suffixes
			2.4.6.5 Individuating Evaluative Plural -At
		2.4.7 Plurality By Pattern
			2.4.7.1 Plurals of Small Quantity (al-Qilla) and Large Quantity (al- kaṯra)
			2.4.7.2 Plural of the Plural: ǧamɛ al- ǧamɛ
			2.4.7.3 Nisba Plural Patterns
			2.4.7.4 Feminine Gender By Pattern Vs. Affix
		2.4.8 Diminutive Patterns: at- taṣġīr
			2.4.8.1 Spoken Arabic Patterns Faeeul and faɛfūl
			2.4.8.2 Diminutive Suffixation With -U + Sonorant
		2.4.9 Intensive Noun/adjective Patterns
			2.4.9.1 faεεāl
			2.4.9.2 fiεεīl, faɛɛīl
			2.4.9.3 faεūl, fāɛūl
			2.4.9.4 tifεāl
		2.4.10 Numerical Patterns
			2.4.10.1 Ordinals: fāɛil/ a
			2.4.10.2 Fractions:  fuɛl, fiɛl
			2.4.10.3 ‘Groups Of’ Numbers: fuɛāla
	2.5 Strategies for Lexical Innovation
		2.5.1 Derivation Via the Root and Pattern System: Al-Ištiqaq
		2.5.2 Semantic and Metaphoric Extension
		2.5.3 Compounding and an- naḥt ‘Sculpting, Fusion’
		2.5.4 Words Acquired Through Contact
Chapter 3 Inflection of Nominals and Verbs
	Introduction
	3.1 Nominal Inflection
		3.1.1 Gender in Nouns and Adjectives
			3.1.10.1 Gender Marking
			3.1.10.2 Variable Gender
		3.1.2 Number Inflection On Nouns and Adjectives
			3.1.2.1 Dual Inflection in CLA
			3.1.2.2 Masculine Sound Plural Marking -ūn/-īn
			3.1.2.3 Feminine Sound Plural -āt
		3.1.3 CLA Case-Marking
			3.1.3.1 Nominative
			3.1.3.2 Genitive
			3.1.3.3 Accusative
			3.1.3.4 Nouns With Partial Declension
			3.1.3.5 The ‘Five Nouns’: al- ʾasmāʾ al- xamsa
			3.1.3.6 CLA Case-Marking On Proper Nouns
	3.2 Pronouns
		3.2.1 Subject Pronouns
		3.2.2 Accusative and Genitive Pronouns
			3.2.2.1 Vowel Quality and Length Harmony With Gen Case and Pronoun Suffixes
			3.2.2.2 Prepositions and Particles With Pronouns
			3.2.2.3 Pronoun Object-Marking Particle ʾiyyā-
		3.2.3 Reflexive Pronouns
		3.2.4 Reciprocal Pronouns
		3.2.5 Demonstrative Pronouns: asmāʾ al- ʾišāra
		3.2.6 Relative Pronouns
	3.3 Numbers
		3.3.1 Cardinal Numbers With Nouns
			3.3.1.1 Quantities of One
			3.3.1.2 Quantities of Two
			3.3.1.3 Quantities 3–10: ʾiḍāfa
			3.3.1.4 Quantities 11–99: At- tamyīz ‘Specification of Type’
			3.3.1.5 Quantities 20–99
			3.3.1.6 Quantities in Multiples of 100
			3.3.1.7 Thousands, Millions, Billions
			3.3.1.8 Definite Compounds With Number + Noun
			3.3.1.9 Numerical Apposition
		3.3.2 Ordinal Numbers
		3.3.3 Fractions
		3.3.4 Dating and Telling Time
	3.4 Verbs
		3.4.1 Perfective Conjugation
		3.4.2 Imperfective Conjugation
			3.4.2.1 Indicative and Subjunctive Moods
			3.4.2.2 Indicative and Future Markers
			3.4.2.3 Subjunctivizing Particles
			3.4.2.4 Imperative
			3.4.2.5 Jussive
			3.4.2.6 CLA Energetic Mood
		3.4.3 Roots With W Or Y
			3.4.3.1 First Radical W- Verbs: W-ɛ-L
			3.4.3.2 Middle W/y Radical Verbs: F-W/y-L
			3.4.3.3 Third Radical W/y: F-ɛ-W/y
		3.4.4 Doubled Verbs
		3.4.5 Stem Suppletion
	3.5 Negation
		3.5.1 Verbal Nouns
		3.5.2 Adjectives and Nouns
		3.5.3 Negative Particles Ma, Ma + Š
		3.5.4 Predicate Negation
		3.5.5 Verbal Negation
			3.5.5.1 Negation of the Past
			3.5.5.2 Negation of Imperfective
			3.5.5.3 Negative Imperative/prohibitive
			3.5.5.4 Negation of Pseudo-Verbs
			3.5.5.5 Negative Copula
	3.6 Particles
		3.6.1 Interrogative Particles
		3.6.2 Focusing Particles
			3.6.2.1 Focus of Attention: CLA La-
			3.6.2.2 Relevance: Qad
			3.6.2.3 Complementizer ʾinna
			3.6.2.4 Pronoun of Separation: ʾamir Al-Fa.l
		3.6.3 Functions of mā
			3.6.3.1 Negative mā
			3.6.3.2 Conditional mā
			3.6.3.3 Nominalizer mā + Verb Clause
			3.6.3.4 CLA Relative mā
			3.6.3.5 The mā of Amazement
			3.6.3.6 Specific Unknown mā
			3.6.3.7 Expository mā
			3.6.3.8 Functions of mā Specific to CLA
		3.6.4 Prepositions
			3.6.4.1 Location in Space and Time, Physical Possession
			3.6.4.2 Motion in Time Or Space
			3.6.4.3 Physical Or Abstract Possession
			3.6.4.4 Physical Accompaniment Or Non-Accompaniment
			3.6.4.5 Distancing From, Separating
			3.6.4.6 Position On, Onto
			3.6.4.7 Rights and Obligations
			3.6.4.8 Reason Or Purpose
			3.6.4.9 Source, Origin, Material
			3.6.4.10 Instrument
			3.6.4.11 Quantifying Cost, Time Passed
			3.6.4.12 About, Concerning
			3.6.4.13 Comparison, Simile
			3.6.4.14 Oaths and Swearing
Chapter 4 Nouns in Context
	Introduction
	4.1 Referentiality
		4.1.1 Definiteness and Indefiniteness: At-Taerif Wa T-Tankir
			4.1.1.1 Definiteness: the Article Al-
			4.1.1.2 Indefiniteness: Bare Nouns and At-Tanwin ‘Nunation’
		4.1.2 Specification of Indefinite Nouns: At-​taxṣīṣ
			4.1.2.1 Unmarked (Contextual) Specification
			4.1.2.2 Marked Specification With Tanwin
			4.1.2.3 Marked Specification With Articles Or Particles
		4.1.3 Non-Referential Nouns
			4.1.3.1 Unindividuated Nouns
			4.1.3.2 Generic and Abstract Nouns
	4.2 Agreement Patterns: Number and Gender
		4.2.1 Normative Agreement Rules
		4.2.2 Agreement On a Semantic Basis
		4.2.3 Plural Noun Agreement: Individuation and Collectivity
			4.2.3.1 Sound and Broken Plurals
			4.2.3.2 Semantic Features
			4.2.3.3 Collective Human Nouns
			4.2.3.4 Individuated Non-Human Nouns
			4.2.3.5 Variation in Feminine Plural Agreement
			4.2.3.5.1 Small-Number Quantification With the Feminine Plural
			4.2.3.6 Variation in Dual Agreement
		4.2.4 Non-Agreement With Classifying Adjectives
			4.2.4.1 Nisba Adjectives
			4.2.4.2 Comparative Adjectives of Pattern ʾafɛal
			4.2.4.3 Adjectives With No Feminine Form
			4.2.4.4 Colors
		4.2.5 Verb-Subject Agreement
			4.2.5.1 Gender-Only Verb-Subject Agreement
			4.2.5.2 Non-Agreement in Verb-Initial Sentences
			4.2.5.3 CLA Participles as Sentence-Initial Verbs
	4.3 Descriptive Modification of Nouns
		4.3.1 Noun + Adjective
			4.3.1.1 Canonical Constructions
			4.3.1.2 ‘Mismatched’ Constructions: Ø-N + Al-ADJ and Al-N + Ø-ADJ
			4.3.1.3 Stylized Adj + Al-N
		4.3.2 Noun + Clause: Relativized Phrases
			4.3.2.1 Referentiality and Relativization
			4.3.2.2 Resumptive Pronouns in Relative Clauses
			4.3.2.3 The Article Al- as Relativizer
			4.3.2.4 CLA Linked Relative Clauses With Participle: ​an-​naɛt​as-​sababī
			4.3.2.5 Clauses Headed By Pronouns Ma ‘What, Whatever’; Man ‘Who, Whoever’
		4.3.3 Noun + Noun: Genitive and Appositional Relationships
			4.3.3.1 The ʾiḍāfa ‘Possessive Construction’
			4.3.3.2 Genitive Particle Constructions
			4.3.3.4 Compounding: Al-N + Ø-N
	4.4 Complex Noun Phrases
		4.4.1 Comparison and Ranking
			4.4.1.1 Simple Comparison: N + ​ʾafɛal
			4.4.1.2 The Superlative: ​ʾafɛal + N
			4.4.1.3 Complex Comparisons With Tamyiz Or Adjectival ʾakṯar
			4.4.1.4 Ordinal Number Constructions
		4.4.2 Quantification With Specialized Nouns
			4.4.2.1 ‘All, Every, Each’
			4.4.2.2 ‘Many, Most’
			4.4.2.3 ‘Any’
			4.4.2.4 ‘A Few, Several’
			4.4.2.5 ‘Some’
			4.4.2.6 ‘No, Not Any, None’
		4.4.3 Distributive Quantification: Min + Definite Noun as Alternative to Tamyiz Or ʾiḍāfa
		4.4.4 Nominalization
			4.4.4.1 Ma
			4.4.4.2 CLA​ʾan
			4.4.4.3 ʾinna-​​ and​ ‘its​ sisters’
Chapter 5 Verbs in Context
	Introduction
	5.1 Time Reference
		5.1.1 Relative Time Reference
		5.1.2 Future Time Reference
		5.1.3 Complex Time Reference
			5.1.3.1 Remote Past and Pluperfect
			5.1.3.2 CLA ‘Would Never (Have)’: Neg + Kan + Li- + Subjunctive
			5.1.3.3 Past Habitual and Durative: Kan + Imperfective
			5.1.3.4 Future of Past Time Reference and Modality: Kan + Future
			5.1.3.5 Future Progressive: Fut + -Kun + Ipfv
			5.1.3.6 Future Perfect and Perfective: FUT + -Kun + PFV Or PRF
	5.2 Aspect
		5.2.1 Distinguishing Perfective and Perfect Aspects
		5.2.2 Perfective Aspect: al-​māḍī
		5.2.3 Imperfective Aspect: al-​muḍāriɛ
			5.2.3.1 Distinguishing Progressive and Stative Types of Events
			5.2.3.2 Progressive and Habitual Aktionsarts
		5.2.4 Perfect Aspect: the Participle Ism al-​fāɛil, ism​al-​mafɛūl
			5.2.4.1 Aspect in Translocative Verbs
			5.2.4.2 Perfect Aspect of faɛlān
			5.2.4.3 Perfect Aspect and Time Reference
		5.2.5 Qad as Relevance Marker
	5.3 Mood
		5.3.1 Assertive and Non-Assertive Moods: Indicative and Subjunctive
			5.3.1.1 Overlap and Variation in Mood (Assertion) and Aktionsart
			5.3.1.2 Mood Alternation in Complement Clauses
			5.3.1.3 The Modal Function of Yakun / B-Ykun
		5.3.2 The Imperative and the Jussive
		5.3.3 Expressive Moods in CLA and NSW
			5.3.3.1 The Energetic Mood
		5.3.4 The Modal Role of 2pl and 3pl Indicative -Un
		5.3.5 Modalities of the Perfective
			5.3.5.1 Hypothetical Mood
			5.3.5.2 Performative Modality
	5.4 Temporal Framing Verbs
		5.4.1 Verbs of Becoming: Onset Or Change of State, Habit, and Motion
		5.4.2 Verbs of Continuity: to Keep On Doing
		5.4.3 Verbs of Cessation: No Longer
		5.4.4 Temporal Verbs + Perfect: Change of Resultant State
		5.4.5 CLA Temporal Verb Categories
	5.5 Narrative Functions of Translocative Verbs
		5.5.1 Change of Location
		5.5.2 Change of Posture Or Bodily Position
		5.5.3 Perpetuation of Motion
Chapter 6 Basic Sentence Structures
	Introduction
	6.1 Approaches to Sentence Typology
		6.1.1 Sentence Typology in a Word Order Framework
		6.1.2 Sentence Typology in an Informational-Pragmatic Framework
			6.1.2.1 Topic
			6.1.2.2 Discursive Functions of Topics
			6.1.2.3 Focus
	6.2 Topic-Predicate Sentence Structures
		6.2.1 Verbless Topic-Predicate Sentences
			6.2.1.1 Focusing the Equational Relationship: Pronoun of Separation and Relativization
			6.2.1.2 Presentative Sentences
		6.2.2 Predicate-Topic Sentences
			6.2.2.1 Introducing a Salient New Entity: Locative and Possessive Predications
			6.2.2.2 Introducing a Salient New Entity: Existential Predications
			6.2.2.3 Categorically Negated Existential Sentences
			6.2.2.4 Focusing the Speaker’s Stance
			6.2.2.5 CLA Predicate-Topic Sentences With Verbal Adjectives as Verbs
		6.2.3 Topic-Predicate Sentences With a Verb in the Predicate
			6.2.3.1 Topic and Subject
			6.2.3.2 Postponed Subjects: Retrieving Entities
			6.2.3.3 Topic and Object
		6.2.4 Reduplication of Pronouns
			6.2.4.1 Fronted Subject Pronouns as Contrastive Topics
			6.2.4.2 Subject Pronouns in Sentence-Final Position: Focus
			6.2.4.3 Reduplication of Oblique Pronouns
		6.2.5 Predication as Focus: .amir Aš-Ša.n / al-qiṣṣa
	6.3 Temporal Framing With Kan ‘To Be’ and ‘Its Sisters’
	6.4 Event-Structured Sentences: Al-Gumla Al-FiƐliyya ‘Verbal Sentence’
		6.4.1 Subordinate (non-Finite) Event-Structured Complements
		6.4.2 Transitivity
			6.4.2.1 Direct Object Marking
			6.4.2.2 Object Pronoun Marking
			6.4.2.3 Translocative Verbs and Objects of Bringing
			6.4.2.4 Transitivizing Subjects
		6.4.3 Ditransitive Verbs
			6.4.3.1 Ditransitive Coding Constructions
			6.4.3.2 Anaphoricity Effects On Ditransitive Coding
			6.4.3.3 Person Effects On Ditransitive Coding
			6.4.3.4 CLA Verbs With Three Objects
		6.4.4 Active Participle Plus Object
			6.4.4.1 CLA Participle + .iyya-
			6.4.4.2 Feminine Participle + Pronoun
			6.4.4.3 The Gulf -Inn- Infix
			6.4.4.4 Object Marking On CLA Active Participles
		6.4.5 Ma.dar With Subject and Object
			6.4.5.1 CLA Literary License
			6.4.5.2 Nouns With Similar Force and Meaning to the MaƐdar
	6.5 Passive and Impersonal Sentences
		6.5.1 Passive Verbs
			6.5.1.1 Evaluative Meaning of Passive
			6.5.1.2 Introduction of Agent With Passive Verb
			6.5.1.3 Introduction of Instrument With Passive Verb
			6.5.1.4 Passive Verbs With Preposition
		6.5.2 Impersonal Constructions
			6.5.2.1 Impersonal Verbs in Preposed Predicates
			6.5.2.2 Non-Referential 3M.PL Verbs
			6.5.2.3 Meteorological Expressions
Chapter 7 Interrogatives, Conditionals, Negation, and Exception
	Introduction
	7.1 Interrogatives: AL-​ISTIFHĀM
		7.1.1 Basic Interrogative Structure
		7.1.2 Pragmatically Marked Questions
		7.1.3 Yes/no and Alternative Questions
		7.1.4 Indirect Questions
	7.2 Conditional Sentences: Al-Gumla Aš-Šar.iyya
		7.2.1 Structure of Conditional Sentences
		7.2.2 Overview of Verb Stems in Conditionals
			7.2.2.1 Kan as Hypothetical Modal Verb
			7.2.2.2 Non-Perfective Protases
			7.2.2.3 The Perfective: al-​māḍī
			7.2.2.4 Kan + Perfective as Counterfactual: Wishful Or Lamenting
			7.2.2.5 CLA Jussive and Imperative: Neutral and Authoritative
			7.2.2.6 Assertive Moods
		7.2.3 Conditional Particles
			7.2.3.1 Neutral and Authoritative Conditions: ʾin
			7.2.3.2 Expected Or Desired Conditions: iḏā
			7.2.3.3 Counterfactual, Unlikely, Or Emotive Conditions: Law
			7.2.3.4 Particles Related to Kan
		7.2.4 Particles Introducing the Apodosis
			7.2.4.1 Logical Fa-
			7.2.4.2 CLA Emotive La-
			7.2.4.3 NJD Wila
		7.2.5 Exhaustive Conditionals: ‘-Ever’
		7.2.6 Sets of Conditions: ‘Whether ... Or ...’
		7.2.7 Extreme Conditionals: ‘Even If’
		7.2.8 ‘As Long As’, ‘As Long as Not’
	7.3 Negation: An-Nafi
		7.3.1 Predicate Negation
			7.3.1.1 Existential Predicate Negation
		7.3.1.2 Marked Predicate Negation
		7.3.1.3 Predication of Verb Clause
		7.3.2 Verbal Negation
			7.3.2.1 Bipartite Verbal Negation in Western Varieties
			7.3.2.2 Negative Copula
			7.3.2.3 Verbal Negation of Predicates
		7.3.3 Categorical Negation
			7.3.3.1 Categorical Negation of Existential Sentences
			7.3.3.2 Categorical Verbal Negation
			7.3.3.3 Categorical Negation of Coordinated Entities Or Clauses: Wa-La
	7.4 Exception: AL-​ISTIṮNĀʾ
		7.4.1 Exhaustive Exception: Al-Isti.na. Al-Mufarrag
		7.4.2 CLA Continuous and Discontinuous Exception
Chapter 8 Sentence Complements
	Introduction
	8.1 CLA Object Complements: AL-​MAFĀƐĪL
	8.2 Oblique Objects
		8.2.1 Complement of Accompaniment: Al-Mafeul Maeahu
		8.2.2 Attitude Dative
	8.3 Adverbial Complements of Time and Location: AL-​MAFƐŪL Fihi
	8.4 Adverbial Complements With the MaṢdar
		8.4.1 Complement of Purpose: al-​mafɛūl​lahu/​li-​ʾaǧlihi
		8.4.2 Cognate Adverbial: Event Quality Or Quantity
		8.4.3 Topic-Shifting Nisba Adverbials
		8.4.4 Cognate Infinitive: Speaker Stance
	8.5 ‘Status’ Complements: AL-​ḤĀL
		8.5.1 Nominal ḥāl
		8.5.2 Verbal Sentence ḥāl
		8.5.3 Temporal, Topic-Oriented ḥāl: Wa- + Topic-Predicate Sentence
			8.5.3.1 Sentence-Initial ḥāl
			8.5.3.2 Temporal Wa- ‘Since’
		8.5.4 CLA Prior Event ḥāl: Wa- + Qad + Perfective
		8.5.5 Participles in Contemporary Literary ḥāl
		8.5.6 CLA Restrictions On ḥāl
	8.6 Topic-Oriented Sentence Complements: .inna and ‘Its Sisters’
		8.6.1 Topic-Predicate Complementizers .anna, Li-ʾanna, Ka-ʾanna, Lakinna
			8.6.1.1 ‘Because’ Complementizers Liʾann-, .it, .a(la)šan, Minšan, .alamud
			8.6.1.2 Ka-.ann- ‘As If’
		8.6.2 Alla.i, (I)lli as Complementizer
		8.6.3 ʾinna and ʾenno: Marking Significant Contribution to the Discourse
		8.6.4 CLA ‘Lightened’ Complementizers ʾan and ʾin
Chapter 9 Mapping Out Physical and Discursive Location
	Introduction
	9.1 Deixis
		9.1.1 Demonstratives: ʾasma. Al-ʾišara
			9.1.1.1 Function
			9.1.1.2 Syntax
		9.1.2 Deictic Adverbs
			9.1.2.1 Spatial
			9.1.2.2 Manner and Quality
			9.1.2.3 Degree and Quantity
			9.1.2.4 Temporal
		9.1.3 Anaphora
			9.1.3.1 Anaphora With a Clear Antecedent
			9.1.3.2 Anaphora With an Unclear Antecedent
	9.2 Discourse Connectives: ʾadawat Ar-Rab.
		9.2.1 Connectives and Discourse Management
		9.2.2 Wa- ‘And’: the Arabic Connective Par Excellence
			9.2.2.1 Wa- as Additive Connective
			9.2.2.2 Wa- and Other Rhetorical Devices
		9.2.3 Fa-
			9.2.3.1 Sequential Fa-
			9.2.3.2 Consequential Fa-
			9.2.3.3 Fa- + ʾinna/qad as Retrieval Tools
			9.2.3.4 Causal Fa-
			9.2.3.5 Elaborative Fa-
		9.2.4 .inna as a Discourse-Level Connective
		9.2.5 Zero Connective
		9.2.6 Conditionals Serving as Connectives
		9.2.7 Nisba Adjective Adverbials Serving as Connectives
Chapter 10 Linguistic Tools of Rhetoric
	Introduction
	10.1 Repetition
		10.1.1 Repetition of Sound in Roots
		10.1.2 Repetition at Sentence Level
			10.1.2.1 Verb + Cognate Subject
			10.1.2.2 Cognate Adverbs and Infinitives
			10.1.2.3 Repetition of Verb: Inevitability Or Threat
			10.1.2.4 Verbal Repetition and Lack of Specification: Dismissal Or Resignation
			10.1.2.5 Lexical Repetition for Symmetric Features Or Concepts
			10.1.2.6 Lexical Repetition for Discourse Cohesion
	10.2 Rhetorical Uses of Interrogatives, Negation, and Conditionals
		10.2.1 Rhetorical Interrogatives
		10.2.2 Rhetorical Negation
			10.2.2.1 Negative Questions
			10.2.2.2 Negation With Exception
			10.2.2.3 CLA Negative ʾin
		10.2.3 Rhetorical and Discursive Functions of Conditionals
			10.2.3.1 Set Up Or Challenge an Argument
			10.2.3.2 Warning, Threatening, Asserting Authority
	10.3 Vocative Styles and Functions
		10.3.1 Common Vocative Particles
			10.3.1.1 yā, ʾa
			10.3.1.2 wā او
		10.3.2 Rhetorical Vocative ʾayyuha
		10.3.3 Emotive Ya
		10.3.4 Intimate Vocatives
		10.3.5 Lamentation
		10.3.6 CLA Case-Marking Rules
	10.4 Literary and Performative Styles
		10.4.1 Juxtaposition of Styles and Registers
		10.4.2 Complex Constructions
	10.5 Performative Speech
		10.5.1 Performing Oaths, Curses, and Blessings
		10.5.2 CLA Performative and Evaluative Verbs
		10.5.3 CLA Accusative Marking
	10.6 Poetic License
Appendix Texts
	ARBT-A: A Joummani Joke
	ARBT-B: A Political Speech
	AASW: A Donkey’s Sixth Sense
	ABEI-A: Rami’s Wife
	ABEI-B: My Only Hope
	AADH: Excerpt From “The Sun Has Taught Us to Accept DepartURE”
	ABHR: Ramadan
	AMSA: Language and Modern Arab Society
	ANSW: Market Rules
	ANJD: Poem Number 12
	ACLA: The Mu.allaqa of Imru’ Al-Qays
References
Index