2D Game Development: From Zero To Hero: A compendium of the community knowledge on game design and development (Pseudocode Edition)

Foreword
Introduction
	Why another game development book?
	Conventions used in this book
		Logic Conventions
		Code Listings
		Block Quotes
		Boxes
		Engine Used
	Structure of this Book
The Maths Behind Game Development
	Some useful symbols
	The modulo operator
	Vectors
		Adding and Subtracting Vectors
		Scaling Vectors
		Dot Product
		Vector Length and Normalization
		“Clamping” a Vector
	Geometry
		Convex vs Concave polygons
		Self-intersecting polygons
		Straight Lines and their equations
			Getting the equation of a straight line, given two points
			Getting the equation, given the slope and a point
		Projections
			Projecting arbitrary lines on the axes
	Matrices
		What is a matrix
		Matrix sum and subtraction
		Multiplication by a scalar
		Transposition
		Multiplication between matrices
		Other uses for matrices
	Trigonometry
		Radians vs Degrees
		Sine, Cosine and Tangent
		Pythagorean Trigonometric Identity
		Reflections
		Shifts
		Trigonometric Addition and subtraction
		Double-Angle Formulae
		Inverse Formulas
	Numerical Analysis
		Newton-Raphson method
	Coordinate Systems on computers
	Transformation Matrices
		Stretching
		Rotation
			Choosing the direction of the rotation
			Rotating referred to an arbitrary point
		Shearing
Some Computer Science Fundamentals
	Recursion
	Computers are (not) precise
		Catastrophic cancellation
	Random Numbers are not really random
	De Morgan’s Laws and Conditional Expressions
	Estimating the complexity of algorithms
		O(1)
		O(log(n))
		O(n)
		O(n·log(n))
		O(n2)
		O(2n)
	A primer on calculating the order of your algorithms
		Some basics
		What happens when we have more than one big-O?
		What do we do with recursive algorithms?
		How do big-O estimates compare to each other?
	Simplifying your conditionals with Karnaugh Maps
		“Don’t care”s
		A more complex map
		Guided Exercise
	Object Oriented Programming
		Introduction
		Objects
		Abstraction and Interfaces
		Inheritance and Polymorphism
		Mixins
		The Diamond Problem
		Composition
		Coupling
		The DRY Principle
		SOLID Principles
		“Composition over Inheritance” design
	Designing entities as data
	Reading UML diagrams
		Use Case Diagrams
			Actors
			Use Cases
			Notes
			Sub-Use Cases
		Class Diagrams
			Classes
			Interfaces
			Relationships between entities of the class diagram
			Notes
		Activity Diagrams
			Start and End Nodes
			Actions
			Decisions (Conditionals) and loops
			Synchronization
			Swimlanes
			Signals
			Notes
			A note on activity diagrams
		Sequence Diagrams
			Lifelines
			Messages
			Object Instantiation and Destruction
			Grouping and loops
			Notes
		Other diagrams
	Generic Programming
	Advanced Containers
		Dynamic Arrays
			Performance Analysis
		Linked Lists
			Performance Analysis
		Doubly-Linked Lists
		Hash Tables
		Binary Search Trees (BST)
		Heaps
		Stacks
		Queues
		Circular Queues
	Treating multidimensional structures like one-dimensional ones
	Data Redundancy
	Introduction to Multi-Tasking
		Coroutines
	Introduction to Multi-Threading
		What is Multi-Threading
		Why Multi-Threading?
		Thread Safety
			Race conditions
			Critical Regions
		Ensuring determinism
			Immutable Objects
			Mutex
			Atomic Operations
A Game Design Dictionary
	Platforms
		Arcade
		Console
		Personal Computer
		Mobile
		Web
	Input Devices
		Mouse and Keyboard
		Gamepad
		Touch Screen
		Dedicated Hardware
		Other Input Devices
	Game Genres
		Shooters
		Strategy
		Platformer
		RPG
		MMO
		Simulation
		Rhythm Games
		Visual novels
Project Management Basics and tips
	The figures of game design and development
		Producer/Project Manager
		Game Designer
		Writer
		Developer
		Visual Artist
		Sound Artist
		Tester
	Some generic tips
		Be careful of feature creep
		On project duration
		Brainstorming: the good, the bad and the ugly
		On Sequels
	Common Errors and Pitfalls
		Losing motivation
		The “Side Project” pitfall
		Making a game “in isolation”
		Mishandling Criticism
			Misusing of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act
		Not letting others test your game
		Being perfectionist
		Using the wrong engine
	Software Life Cycle Models
		Iteration versus Increment
		Waterfall Model
		Incremental Model
		Evolutionary Model
		Agile Software Development
			User Stories
			Scrum
			Kanban
			ScrumBan
		Lean Development
		Where to go from here
	Version Control
	Metrics and dashboards
		SLOC
		Cyclomatic Complexity
		Code Coverage
		Code Smells
		Coding Style breaches
		Depth of Inheritance
		Number of methods / fields / variables
		Number of parameters
		Other metrics
Writing a Game Design Document
	What is a Game Design Document
	Possible sections of a Game Design Document
		Project Description
		Characters
		Storyline
			The theme
			Progression
		Levels and Environments
		Gameplay
			Goals
			Game Mechanics
			Skills
			Items/Powerups
			Difficulty Management and Progression
			Losing Conditions
		Graphic Style and Art
		Sound and Music
		User Interface
		Game Controls
		Accessibility Options
		Tools
		Marketing
			Target Audience
			Available Platforms
			Monetization
			Internationalization and Localization
		Other/Random Ideas
	Where to go from here
The Game Loop
	The Input-Update-Draw Abstraction
	Input
		Events vs Real Time Input
	Timing your loop
		What is a time step
		Fixed Time Steps
		Variable Time Steps
		Semi-fixed Time Steps
		Frame Limiting
		Frame Skipping/Dropping
		Multithreaded Loops
	Issues and possible solutions
		Frame/Screen Tearing
	Drawing to screen
		Clearing the screen
Collision Detection and Reaction
	Why Collision Detection is done in multiple passes
	Narrow-Phase Collision Detection: did it really collide?
		Collision Between Two Points
		Collision Between A Point and a Circle
		Collision Between Two Circles
		Collision Between Two Axis-Aligned Rectangles (AABB)
		Line/Point Collision
		Line/Circle Collision
		Point/Rectangle Collision
		Point/Triangle Collision
		Circle/Rectangle Collision
		Line/Line Collision
		Line/Rectangle Collision
		Point/Polygon Collision
			Jordan Curve Theorem
			Thinking outside the box: polygon triangulation
			Bounding Boxes
			Point/Polygon collision detection with triangles
		Circle/Polygon Collision
		Line/Polygon Collision
		Polygon/Polygon Collision
		Non-convex polygons collision
			Polygon triangulation: the return
		Pixel-Perfect collision
	Broad-phase collision detection: is a collision even possible?
		The Brute Force Method
		Building Quad Trees
		Building AABB-Trees
			Querying
	Other Collision Detection Methods
		Calculating the position of tiles
	Collision Reaction/Correction
		HitBoxes vs HurtBoxes
		Collision Reaction Methods
			A naive approach
			Shallow-axis based reaction method
			Interleaving single-axis movement and collision detection
			The “Snapshot” Method
			The “Tile + Offset” Method
		When two moving items collide
	Common Issues with time-stepping Collision Detection
		The “Bullet Through Paper” problem
		Precision Issues
		One-way obstacles
	Separating Axis Theorem
		Why only convex polygons?
		How it works
			Finding the axes to analyze
			Projecting the shapes into the axes and exiting the algorithm
			From arbitrary axes to “x and y”
	Ray Casting
		What is Ray Casting?
Cameras
	Screen Space vs. Game Space
	Most used camera types
		Static Camera
		Grid Camera
		Position-Tracking Camera
			Horizontal-Tracking Camera
			Full-Tracking Camera
		Camera Trap
		Look-Ahead Camera
		Hybrid Approaches
	Clamping your camera position
Game Design Tips
	Tutorials
		Do not pad tutorials
		Integrate tutorials in the lore
		Let the player explore the controls
	Consolidating and refreshing the game mechanics
		Remind the player about the mechanics they learned
		Introduce new ways to use old mechanics
	Rewarding the player
		Reward the player for their “lateral thinking”
		Reward the player for their tenacity
		Reward the player for exploring
		Reward the player for not immediately following the given direction
		Reward the player for not trusting you entirely
		Reward Backtracking (but don’t make it mandatory!)
		The “lives” system
			1-UPs
	Loading Screens
		What to put in a loading screen
		Letting the player “exit” the loading screen
		Avoiding a loading screen altogether
	Designing the story and gameplay flow
		Linear Gameplay
		Branching gameplay
		Parallel gameplay
		Threaded gameplay
		Episodic gameplay
		Adding parallel paths
	Some game genres and their characteristics
		Roguelikes and Rogue-lites
			Use of pseudo-randomness and procedural generation
			Permadeath
			Turn-based Gameplay
			Lack of mode-based gameplay
			Multiple ways to accomplish (or fail!) a task
			Resource Management is key
			Peace was never an option
			Dealing with the unknown
	Tips and Tricks
		General Purpose
			Make that last Health Point count
			Avoiding a decision can be a decision itself
			Telegraphing
			Minigames
			When unlockables are involved, be balanced
		Shooters
			Make the bullets stand out
		RPGs
			Grinding and farming
			Leveling Curves
	Perceived Fairness
		You don’t need precise collision detection
		Immediate dangers should be well visible
	Miscellaneous
		You cannot use the “Red Cross” in games
		Auto-saving
		Feedback is important
Creating your assets
	Assumptions
	Graphics
		Some computer graphics basics
			Color Depth
			Direct Color vs. Indexed Color
			Lossless Formats
			Lossy Formats
			Transparency
		Texture Filtering
			Nearest Neighbor Filtering
			Bilinear Filtering
			Trilinear Filtering
		General Tips
			Practice, Practice, Practice…
			References are your friends
			Don’t compare your style to others’
			Study other styles
			Learn to deconstruct objects into shapes
		Sprite sheets
		Virtual Resolution
		Using limited color palettes
		Dithering
		Layering and graphics
			Detail attracts attention
			Use saturation to separate layers further
			Movement is yet another distraction
			Use contrast to your advantage
			Find exceptions
		Palette Swapping
		Pixel Art
			What pixel art is and what it is not
			Tools
			Layers
			Sub-pixel animation
		Normal Mapping
			A simple example
		Tips and Tricks
			Tiles
			Sprites and icons
	Sounds And Music
		Some audio basics
			Sample Rate
			Bit Depth
			Lossless Formats
			Lossy Formats
			Clipping
		Sound Synthesis
		AM Synthesis
		FM Synthesis
		Basic Wave Forms
			Sine Wave
			Square Wave
			Triangle Wave
			Sawtooth Wave
			Noise
		ADSR Envelope
			Attack
			Decay
			Sustain
			Release
		Digital Sound Processing (DSP)
			Reverb
			Pitch Shift
			Filtering
			Doppler Effect
		FM Synthesis vs Sample-based music
		Simulating older consoles’ audio
			Commodore Vic20
			Commodore 64
			Commodore Amiga
			Sega Master System / GameGear
			Sega Genesis/MegaDrive
			NES
			SNES
			AdLib / SoundBlaster
		“Swappable” sound effects
		Some audio processing tips
			Prefer cutting over boosting
		DAW Basics
			What is a DAW Software?
			The Piano Roll
		Music Tracker Basics
			What is a Music Tracker Software?
			Samples
			Instruments
			Channels
			Patterns
		Basic Rhythms
			Four on the floor
			Four on the floor with off-beat hi-hats
			Adaptive Music
	Fonts
		Font Categories
			Serif and Sans-Serif fonts
		Proportional and Monospaced fonts
		Using textures to make text
		Using Fonts to make text
	Shaders
		What are shaders
		Shader Programming Languages
		The GLSL Programming Language
			The data types
		Some GLSL Shaders examples
Design Patterns
	Singleton Pattern
	Command Pattern
	Flyweight
	Observer Pattern
	Strategy
	Chain of Responsibility
	Component/Composite Pattern
	Dependency Injection
	Decorator
	Visitor
	Adapter
		Object Adapter
		Class Adapter
	Prototype
	Facade
	Service Locator
Useful Containers and Classes
	Resource Manager
	Animator
	Finite State Machine
	Menu Stack
	Particle Systems
		Particles
		Generators
		Emitters
		Updaters
		Force Application
	Timers
		Accounting for “leftover time”
			A naive solution
			A different approach
	Inbetweening
		Bouncing
	Chaining
Artificial Intelligence in Videogames
	Path Finding
		Representing our world
			2D Grids
			Path nodes
			Navigation meshes
		Heuristics
			Manhattan Distance heuristic
			Euclidean Distance heuristic
		Algorithms
			A simple “Wandering” Algorithm
			A slightly better “Wandering” algorithm
			The Greedy “Best First” Algorithm
			The Dijkstra Algorithm
			The A* Algorithm
	Finite state machines
	Decision Trees
	Behaviour Trees
Other Useful Algorithms
	World Generation
		Midpoint Displacement Algorithm
		Diamond-Square Algorithm
		Maze Generation
			Randomized Depth-First Search (Recursive Backtracker)
			Randomized Kruskal’s Algorithm
		Recursive Division Algorithm
		Binary Tree Algorithm
		Eller’s Algorithm
	Dungeon Generation
	Noise Generation
		Randomized Noise (Static)
		Perlin Noise
Procedural Content Generation
	What is procedural generation (and what it isn’t)
	Advantages and disadvantages
		Advantages
			Less disk space needed
			Larger games can be created with less effort
			Lower budgets needed
			More variety and replayability
		Disadvantages
			Requires more powerful hardware
			Less Quality Control
			Worlds can feel repetitive or “lacking artistic direction”
			You may generate something unusable
			Story and set game events are harder to script
	Where it can be used
	Procedural Generation and Difficulty Management
		Static difficulty
		Adaptive Difficulty
			Rubberbanding
		Static vs. Adaptive Difficulty
Developing Game Mechanics
	General Purpose
		I-Frames
		Scrolling Backgrounds and Parallax Scrolling
			Infinitely Scrolling Backgrounds
			Parallax Scrolling
		Avoid interactions between different input systems
		Sprite Stenciling/Masking
		Loading screens
		Simulating Inertia
	2D Platformers
		Simulating Gravity
		Avoiding “Floaty Jumps”
		Ladders
		Walking on slanted ground
		Stairs
		Jump Buffering
		Coyote Time
		Timed Jumps
		Screen Wrap
	Top-view RPG-Like Games
		Managing height
	Rhythm Games
		The world of lag
			Input Lag
			Video Lag
			Audio Lag
			Lag Tests
		Synchronizing with the Music
			Time domain vs. Frequency Domain
			The Fast Fourier Transform
			Beat Detection
	“Bullet Hell” Style Games
		Bullets
		The Ship Hitbox
		Screen-clearing bombs
		Clearing bullets on pattern changes
		Find other chances to clear some bullets
		Turn enemy bullets into collectibles at the end of a boss fight
		The “Chain Meter”
		Managing the player’s death
		The Enemy AI
		Be fair to the player, but also to the computer
		Inertia
		Some examples
	Match-x Games
		Managing and drawing the grid
		Finding and removing Matches
			Why don’t we delete the matches immediately?
		Replacing the removed tiles and applying gravity
	Cutscenes
		Videos
		Scripted Cutscenes
Balancing Your Game
	The “No BS” principle
	Always favour the player
	Economy
		Supply and Demand
		Money sources and sinks
		Inflation
		Deflation
	A primer on Cheating
		Information-based cheating
		Mechanics-based cheating
		Man-in-the-middle
	How cheating influences gameplay and enjoyability
		Single Player
		Multiplayer
			P2P
			Dedicated Servers
	Cheating protection
Accessibility in videogames
	What accessibility is and what it is not
	UI and HUD Scaling
	Subtitles
	Mappable Buttons
	Button Toggling
	Dyslexia
		Text Spacing
		Fonts
	“Slow Mode”
	Colorblind mode
	No Flashing Lights
	No motion blur
	Reduced Motion
	Assisted Gameplay
	Controller Support
	Some special cases
Testing your game
	When to test
		Testing “as an afterthought”
		Test-Driven Development
		The “Design to test” approach
		You won’t be able to test EVERYTHING
	Mocking
	Types of testing
		Automated Testing
		Manual Testing
	Unit Testing
	Integration Testing
	Regression Testing
	Playtesting
		In-House Testing
		Closed Beta Testing
		Open Beta Testing
		A/B Testing
Profiling and Optimization
	Profiling your game
		Does your application really need profiling?
			Does your FPS counter roam around a certain “special” value?
			Is the animation of your game stuttering but the FPS counter is fine?
		First investigations
			Is your game using 100% of the CPU?
			Is your game overloading your GPU?
			Is your game eating up more and more RAM as it’s running?
	Optimizing your game
		Working with references vs. returning values
		Optimizing Drawing
		Reduce the calls to the Engine Routines
		Entity Cleanup and Memory leaks
		Using analyzers to detect Memory Leaks
			Static Scanners
			Dynamic testing tools
		Resource Pools
		Lookup Tables
		Memoization
		Approximations
		Eager vs. Lazy Evaluation
			Eager approach
			Lazy approach
	Tips and tricks
		Be mindful of your “updates”
		Dirty Bit
		Far-Away entities (Dirty Rectangles)
		Tweening is better than animating
		Remove dead code
	Non-Optimizations
		“Switches are faster than IFs”
		Blindly Applying Optimizations
Marketing your game
	An Important Note: Keep your feet on the ground
	The importance of being consumer-friendly
	Pricing
		Penetrating the market with a low price
		Giving off a “premium” vibe with a higher price
		The magic of “9”
		Launch Prices
		Bundling
		Nothing beats the price of “Free” (Kinda)
	Managing Hype
	Downloadable Content
		DLC: what to avoid
		DLC: what to do
	Digital Rights Management (DRM)
		How DRM can break a game down the line
	Free-to-Play Economies and LootBoxes
		Microtransactions
			The human and social consequences of Lootboxes
		Free-to-Play gaming and Mobile Games
	Assets and asset Flips
	Crowdfunding
		Communication Is Key
		Do not betray your backers
		Don’t be greedy
		Stay on the “safe side” of planning
		Keep your promises, or exceed them
		A striking case: Mighty No. 9
	Engagement vs Fun
	Streamers and Content Creators
		The game developers’ side
		The Streamers’ side
		Other entities and conclusions
Keeping your players engaged
	Communities
		Forums
		Wikis
		Update Previews
		Speedrunning
	Replayability
		Modding
		Fan games
		Randomizing
		New Game+
		Transmogrification
Dissecting games: two study cases
	A bad game: Hoshi wo miru hito
		Introduction
		Balance Issues
			You can’t beat starter enemies
			The Damage Sponge
			Can’t run away from battles, but enemies can
			Statistics
		Bad design choices
			You get dropped in the middle of nowhere
			The starting town is invisible
			The Jump Ability
			Items are invisible
			Item management
			Buying Weapons makes you weaker
			Enemy Abilities
			You can soft lock yourself
		Confusing Choices
			Starting level for characters
			Slow overworld movement
			Exiting a dungeon or a town
			The Health Points UI
		Inconveniencing the player
			The battle menu order
			Every menu is a committal
			Password saves
			Each character has their own money stash
		Bugs and glitches
			Moonwalking and save warping
			The final maze
			The endings
		Conclusions
	A good game: Dark Souls
Project Ideas
	Tic-Tac-Toe
		Basic Level
		Advanced Level
		Master Level
	Space Invaders
		Basic Level
		Advanced Level
		Master level
	Breakout
		Basic Level
		Advanced Level
		Master Level
	Shooter Arena
		Basic Level
		Advanced level
		Master Level
Game Jams
	Have Fun
	Stay Healthy
	Stick to what you know
	Hacking is better than planning (But still plan ahead!)
	Graphics? Sounds? Music? FOCUS!
	Find creativity in limitations
	Involve Your Friends!
	Write a Post-Mortem (and read some too!)
	Most common pitfalls in Game Jams
Where To Go From Here
	Collections of different topics
		Books
		Videos
		Multiple formats
	Pixel Art
		Multiple Formats
	Sound Design
		Multiple Formats
	Game Design
		Books
	Game Development
		Videos
	References and Cheat Sheets
Glossary
	A
	C
	D
	E
	G
	H
	I
	K
	L
	M
	O
	P
	R
	S
	U
	W
Engines, Libraries And Frameworks
	Game Maker Studio
	GDevelop
	GLFW
	Godot
	IRRlicht
	Löve
	MonoGame
	Ogre3D
	Panda3D
	SDL
	SFML
	Unity 3D
Some other useful tools
	Graphics
		Aseprite
		Blender
		Gimp
		Inkscape
		Krita
		Laighter
		LibreSprite
		NormalMap-Online
		Piskel
		Pixelorama
	Shaders
		SHADERed
	Sounds and Music
		Audacity
		Bosca Ceoil
		Chiptone
		FamiStudio
		Helio
		LMMS
		MilkyTracker
		Rimshot
		SFXR/BFXR/CFXR
		Tenacity
	Maps
		Tiled
Free assets and resources
	Openclipart.org
	Opengameart.org
	Freesound
	PublicDomainFiles
	CCMixter
	SoundBible.com
	Incompetech
Contributors