Wine Science: Principles and Applications

Cover
Wine Science: Principles
and
Applications
Copyright
Dedication
About the Author
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 - Introduction
	Grapevine and wine origins
	Commercial importance of grapes and wine
	Wine classification
		Still table wines
		Sparkling wines
		Fortified wines (dessert and appetizer wines)
	Wine quality
	Health-related aspects of wine consumption
	References
	Suggested readings
2 - Grape species and varieties
	Introduction
	The genus Vitis
	Geographic origin and distribution of Vitis and Vitis vinifera
	Domestication of Vitis vinifera
	Cultivar origins
	Recorded cultivar development
	Grapevine improvement
		Standard breeding techniques
		Modern approaches to vine improvement
		Clonal selection
		Somaclonal selection and mutation
	Grapevine cultivars
		Vitis vinifera cultivars
			Red cultivars
			White cultivars
		Interspecies hybrids
			American cultivars and their hybrids
			French-American hybrids (direct producers)
	References
	Suggested reading
3 - Grapevine structure and function
	Structure and function
	The root system
		The young root
		Mycorrhizal and endophytic associations
		Secondary tissue development
		Root-system development
	The shoot system
		Buds
		Shoots and shoot growth
		Tissue development
	Tendrils
	Leaves
		Photosynthesis and other light-activated processes
		Transpiration and stomatal function
	Reproductive structure and development
		Inflorescence (flower cluster)
			Induction
		Inflorescence morphology and development
		Flower development
		Timing and duration of flowering
		Pollination and fertilization
		Flower type and genetic control
	Berry growth and development
		Berry structure
		Seed morphology
		Chemical changes during berry maturation
		Growth regulators
		Water uptake
		Sugars
		Acids
		Potassium and other minerals
		Phenolics
		Pectins
		Lipids
		Nitrogen-containing compounds
		Aromatic compounds
	Cultural and climatic influences on berry maturation
		Yield
		Sunlight
		Temperature
		Inorganic nutrients
		Water
	References
	Suggested reading
4 - Vineyard practice
	Vine cycle and vineyard activity
	Management of vine growth
		Yield/quality ratio
		Physiological effects of pruning
		Pruning options
		Pruning level and timing
		Bearing-wood selection
		Pruning procedures
		Training options and systems
			Bearing-wood origin
			Bearing-wood length
			Shoot positioning
			Canopy division
			Canopy height
			Trunk number
			Planting density and row spacing
			Row orientation
			Canopy management and training system development
			Choice of training system
		Selected training systems
			Vertical shoot positioning
			Scott Henry and Smart–Dyson systems
			Geneva double curtain
			Lyre or U system
			Ruakura twin two tier
			Minimal pruning
		Ancient Roman example
		Vigor regulation (devigoration)
	Rootstocks
	Vine propagation and grafting
		Multiplication procedures
		Grafting
		Soil preparation
		Vineyard planting and establishment
	Irrigation
		Assessing timing and need of irrigation
		Water quality and salinity
		Types of irrigation
	Fertilization
		Factors affecting nutrient supply and acquisition
		Assessment of nutrient need
		Nutrient requirements
			Nitrogen
			Phosphorus
			Potassium
			Calcium
			Magnesium
			Sulfur
			Zinc
			Manganese
			Iron
			Boron
			Copper
			Molybdenum
			Chlorine
		Organic fertilizers
			Farm manure
			Green manures
			Compost
			Biochar
	Organic viticulture
	Disease, pest, and weed management
		Pathogen control
			Chemical methods
			Biological control
			Environmental modification
			Genetic control
			Eradication and sanitation
			Quarantine
		Consequences of pathogenesis for fruit quality
		Fungal diseases
			Botrytis bunch rot
			Powdery mildew (oidium)
			Downy mildew (oidium)
			Black rot of grapes
			Eutypa dieback and other related syndromes
			Esca, black measles, Petri, and black foot diseases
			Ochratoxin-producing aspergilli
		Bacterial diseases
			Crown gall
			Pierce's disease
			Yellows diseases
		Viruses, virus-like, and viroid diseases
			Fanleaf degeneration
			Leafroll
			Yellow speckle
		Nematode pathogens
			Root-knot nematodes
			Dagger nematodes
		Insect and mite pests
			Phylloxera
			Leafhoppers (sharpshooters)
			Tortricid and other moths
			Mealybugs
			Mites
		Mammalian and bird damage
		Physiological disorders
		Air pollution
			Ozone
			Hydrogen fluoride
			Elemental contaminants
			Chemical spray phytotoxicity
		Weed control
			Tillage
			Herbicides
			Mulches
			Cover crops
			Biological control
	Harvesting
		Criteria for harvest timing
		Sampling
		Harvest mechanisms
			Manual harvesting
			Mechanical harvesters
			Pivotal strikers
			Trunk shakers (pulsators)
			Striker–shaker combinations
			Horizontal impactor
			Robotic harvesters
			Factors affecting harvester efficiency
			Relative merits of mechanical harvesting
		Measurement of vineyard variability
	References
	Suggested reading
5 - Site selection and climate
	Soil influences
		Geologic origin
		Texture
		Structure
		Drainage and water availability
		Soil depth
		Soil fauna and flora
		Nutrient content and pH
		Color
		Organic content
	Topographic influences
		Solar exposure
		Wind direction
		Frost and winter protection
		Altitude
		Drainage
	Atmospheric influences
		Minimum climatic requirements
		Temperature
			Chilling and frost injury
			Minimizing frost and winter damage
		Solar radiation
			Physiological effects
		Wind
		Water
		Climate change
	References
	Suggested reading
6 - Chemical constituents of grapes and wine
	Introduction
	Overview of chemical functional groups
	Chemical constituents
		Water
		Sugars
		Pectins, gums, and related polysaccharides
		Alcohols
			Ethanol
			Methanol
			Higher (fusel) alcohols
			Other alcohols
			Diols, polyols, and sugar alcohols
		Acids
			Acetic acid
			Malic acid
			Lactic acid
			Succinic acid
			Tartaric acid
		Phenolics and related phenyl derivatives
			Chemical groups of phenolics
			Color—red wines
			Color—white wines
			Taste and mouthfeel
			Odor
			Oxidant and antioxidant action
			Antimicrobial action
			Clarification
		Aldehydes and ketones
			Aldehydes
			Ketones
		Acetals
		Esters
			Chemical nature
			Origin
		Lactones and other oxygen heterocycles
		Terpenes and their oxygenated derivatives
		Nitrogen-containing compounds
			Amides
			Amino acids
			Other compounds
		Sulfur-containing compounds
		Hydrocarbons and derivatives
		Macromolecules and growth factors
			Carbohydrates
			Lipids
			Proteins
			Nucleic acids
		Vitamins
		Dissolved gases
			Carbon dioxide
			Oxygen
			Sulfur dioxide
		Minerals
	Chemical nature of varietal aromas
	Appendix 6.1
	Appendix 6.2
	Appendix 6.3
	References
	Suggested reading
7 - Fermentation
	Wine production
	Prefermentation practices
		Sorting
		Prefermentative drying
		Quality assessment
		Stemming and crushing
			Stemming
			Crushing
		Cryoextraction and supraextraction
		Maceration (skin contact)
			White wines
			Rosé wines
			Red wines
		Dejuicing
		Pressing
			Vertical (basket) presses
			Horizontal (moving head) presses
			Pneumatic (tank, bladder, or membrane) presses
			Continuous screw press
		Must clarification
		Adjustments to juice and must
			Acidity and pH
			Sugar content and alcohol potential
			Reducing alcohol content
			Color enhancement
			Enzyme addition
			Other adjustments
			Blending
			Decoloration and reducing browning potential
			Addition of sulfur dioxide
	Alcoholic fermentation
		Fermentors
			Batch-type fermentors
			Continuous fermentation and related procedures
			Fermentor size
		Fermentation
		Biochemistry of alcoholic fermentation
			Energy balance and the synthesis of metabolic intermediates
			Influence on grape constituents
		Yeasts
			Classification and life cycle
		Yeast identification
			Yeast evolution and grape flora
			Succession during fermentation
			Must inoculation
			Spontaneous versus induced fermentation
			Yeast breeding
				Genetic modification
		Environmental factors affecting fermentation
			Carbon and energy sources
			Alcohols
			Nitrogenous compounds
			Lipids
			Phenols
			Sulfur dioxide
			Oxygen and aeration
			Carbon dioxide and pressure
			pH
			Vitamins
			Inorganic elements
			Temperature
			Pesticide residues
			Stuck and sluggish fermentation
	Malolactic fermentation
		Lactic acid bacteria
		Effects of malolactic fermentation
			Acidity
			Microbial stability
			Flavor modification
			Amine production
		Origin and growth of lactic acid bacteria
		Factors affecting malolactic fermentation
			Physicochemical factors
				pH
				Temperature
				Cellar practices
			Chemical factors
				Carbohydrates and polyols
				Organic acids
				Nitrogen-containing compounds
				Ethanol
				Other organic compounds
				Fermentors
				Gases
				Pesticides
			Biological factors
				Yeast interactions
				Bacterial interactions
				Viral interactions
		Control
			Inoculation
			Inhibition
	Appendix 7.1
	Appendix 7.2
	References
	Suggested reading
8 - Postfermentation treatments and related topics
	Wine adjustments
		Acidity and pH adjustment
			Deacidification
				Precipitation
				Ion-exchange column
				Biological deacidification
			Acidification
		Sweetening
		Dealcoholization
		Flavor enhancement
		Sur lies maturation
		Color adjustment
			Tannin addition
		Blending
	Stabilization and clarification
		Stabilization
			Tartrate and other crystalline salt stabilization
			Potassium bitartrate instability
			Calcium tartrate instability
			Other calcium salt instabilities
			Protein haze stabilization
			Polysaccharide removal and stability
			Tannin removal and oxidative casse
			Metal casse stabilization
			Ferric (iron) casse
			Copper casse
			Masque
			Lacquer-like bottle deposits
			Microbial stabilization
			Oxidation control/regulation (microoxygenation)
		Fining
			Activated carbon (charcoal)
			Albumin
			Bentonite
			Kieselsol
			Casein
			Gelatin
			Gum arabic
			Isinglass
			Polyvinylpolypyrrolidone
			Tannin
			Copper sulfate
		Clarification
			Racking
			Centrifugation
			Filtration
			Depth filters
			Membrane filters
	Maturation in oak (and other) cooperage materials
		Oak species and wood properties
			Primacy of oak
		Barrel production
			Staves
			Barrel assembly
			Cooperage size
			Conditioning (before use) and care (after use)
			Barrel life span
		Chemical composition of oak
			Cell-wall constituents
			Cell-lumen constituents
			Compounds extracted from, and absorbed by, oak
		Oxygen uptake and evaporation from barrels
		In-barrel fermentation
		Advantages and disadvantages of oak cooperage
		Alternative sources of oak flavor
		Other cooperage materials
	Cork and other bottle closures
		Cork
			Cork and the cork oak
			Culture and harvest
			Cellular structure
			Physicochemical properties
			Stopper production
				Agglomerate, technical, and hybrid cork
		Cork as a potential source of wine faults
			Leakage
			Deposits
			Taints
		Alternative bottle closures
			Synthetic corks
			Other closure options
			Closure permeability issues
		Cork insertion
			Leakage caused by insertion problems
	Bottles and other containers
		Glass bottles
			Manufacture
			Shape and color
			Preparation for bottling
			Filling
		Bag-in-box containers
	Aging/Shelf-Life
		Effects of aging
			Appearance
			Taste and mouthfeel sensations
			Fragrance
			Loss or modification of aroma and fermentation bouquet
			Origin of a bottle-aged bouquet
			Additional changes
			Accelerated aging
		Factors affecting aging
			Oxygen
			Temperature
			Light
			Vibration
			pH
		Rejuvenation of old wines
		Aging potential
		Shelf-life
	Wine spoilage
		Cork-related issues
		Yeast-induced spoilage
		Bacterial-induced spoilage
			Lactic acid bacteria
			Acetic acid bacteria
			Other bacterial spoilage
		Sulfur off-odors
		Additional spoilage problems
			Infected grapes
			Light exposure
			Untypical (or atypical) aged flavor
			Oxidation
			Heat
			Storage orientation
		Accidental contamination
	Winery waste treatment
		Treatment systems
	References
	Suggested reading
9 - Specific and distinctive wine styles
	Sweet table wines
		Botrytized wines
			Infection
			Chemical changes associated with noble rotting
			Types of botrytized wines
				Tokaji aszú
				German botrytized wines
				French botrytized wines
			Desirable varietal attributes
			Induced botrytization
		Nonbotrytized sweet white wine
			Drying-induced concentration
			Heat-induced concentration
			Freeze-induced concentration
			Addition of juice concentrate (sweet reserve)
	Red wine styles
		Dry appassimento-based wines
			Production of amarone
			Governo process
		Carbonic maceration wines
			Advantages and disadvantages
			Phase I: Whole-grape (auto-)fermentation
				Phase I Fermentation of released juice
			Phase II: Alcoholic fermentation
			Maturation/aging potential
			Use with rosé and white wines
	Sparkling wines
		Traditional (standard, champenoise) process
			Grape cultivars employed
			Harvesting
			Pressing
			Primary fermentation
			Preparation of the assemblage
			Tirage
			Yeasts and culture acclimation
				Second fermentation (prise de mousse)
			Riddling
			Disgorging, dosage, and corking
			Yeast enclosure
		Transfer method
		Bulk method
			Other methods
		Carbonation
		Production of rosé and red sparkling wines
		Effervescence and foam characteristic
			Gushing
		Aging
	Fortified wines
		Sherry and sherry-like wines
			Solera system
			Base wine production
			Stylistic forms of Jerez sherry
				Finos
				Amontillado
				Oloroso
				Distinguishing sensory differences
			Sweetening and color wines
			European sherry-like wines
			Non-European sherry-like wines
				Solera-aged sherries
				Submerged-culture sherries
				Baked sherries
		Porto and port-like wines
			Porto
			Base wine production
			Maturation and blending
			Sweetening and blending wines
			Port-like wines
			Aromatic character of ports
		Madeira
			Base wine production
			Heat processing
			Further maturation
			Sweetening and blending wines
			Blending
			Chemical nature of the bouquet
		Vermouth
	Brandy
		Base wine production
		Distillation
		Maturation
	References
	Suggested reading
10 - Wine laws, authentication, and geography
	Appellation control laws
		Basic concepts and significance
		Geographic expression
			France
			Germany
			Italy
			South Africa
			United States
			Canada
			Australia
	Detection of wine misrepresentation and adulteration
		Wine authentication
		Validation of conformity with wine production regulations
	World wine regions
		Europe
			Climate
			Cultivars
			Viticulture
			Enology
		Central Western Europe
			France
				Alsace
				Bordeaux
				Burgundy
				Champagne
				Loire
				Southern France
			Germany
			Switzerland
			Czech Republic and Slovakia
			Austria
			United Kingdom
		Southern Europe
			Italy
			Northern Italy
			Central Italy
			Southern Italy
			Spain
				Rioja
				Penedés
				Sherry
			Portugal
				The Upper Douro
				Vinho Verde
				Setubal
			Madeira
			Greece
		Eastern Europe
			Hungary
			Republics of the former Yugoslavia
			Romania
			Bulgaria
			Russia, Moldova, Ukraine, Georgia, and other former Soviet Union states
		North Africa and the Near East
		Far east
			China
			Japan
		Australia and New Zealand
			Australia
			New Zealand
		South Africa
		South America
			Chile
			Argentina
			Brazil
			Uruguay
		North America
			United States
				California
				Pacific northwest
				East of the rockies
			Canada
	References
	Suggested reading
11 - Sensory perception and wine assessment
	Visual sensations
		Color
		Clarity
		Viscosity
		Spritzig (effervescence)
		Tears
	Oral sensations
		Taste
			Sweet, umami, and bitter tastes
			Sour and salty tastes
		Factors influencing taste perception
		Mouthfeel
			Astringency
			Burning
			Temperature
			Prickling
			Body (weight)
			Metallic
		Taste and mouthfeel sensations in wine tasting
	Odor
		Olfactory system
			Nasal passages
			Olfactory epithelium, receptor neurons, and connection with the brain
		Odorants and olfactory stimulation
		Sensations from the trigeminal nerve
		Odor perception
		Factors affecting olfactory perception
		Odor assessment in wine tasting
		Off-odors
	Wine ranking, assessment, and sensory analysis
		Conditions for sensory analysis
			Tasting room
			Number of wines
			Presentation of samples
				Glasses
				Temperature
				Wine identity
				Breathing
				Presentation sequence
				Time of day
				Replicates
		Wine score cards
		Number of tasters
	Tasters
		Training
		Measuring tasting acuity and consistency
	Tasting technique
		Appearance
			Clarity
			Color
			Viscosity
			Effervescence
			Tears
			Orthonasal odor
		In-mouth sensations
			Taste and mouthfeel
			Retronasal odor
		Finish
		Assessment of overall quality
		Wine terminology
	Statistical and descriptive analysis of tasting results
		Simple tests
		Analysis of variance
		Sensory analysis
	Objective wine analysis
	Appendix 11.1
	References
	Suggested reading
12  - Wine, food, and health
	Wine and food
	Moderate wine consumption
	Alcohol
		Metabolism
		Physiological actions
	Potential health benefits and influences
		Food value
		Effects on digestion
		Phenolic bioavailability
		Antimicrobial action
		Antioxidant effects
		Cardiovascular disease
		Vision
		Neurodegenerative diseases
		Osteoporosis
		Arthritis
		Diabetes
		Goiter
		Kidney stones
	Potential health issues
		Cancer
		Allergies and hypersensitivity
		Gout
		Headaches
		Dental erosion
		Fetal alcohol syndrome
		Toxins
		Contraindications
		Medication interactions
	References
	Suggested reading
Glossary
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Y
	Z
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