Weathering of Polymers and Plastic Materials

Cover
Half Title
Weathering of Polymers and Plastic Materials
Copyright
Preface
Introduction
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
About the Author
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
1. Degradation and Stabilization of Polymers
	1.1 Degradation
		1.1.1 Photodegradation
		1.1.2 Degradation Mechanism
		1.1.3 General Mechanism of Oxidative Degradation of Polymers
			1.1.3.1 Initiation
			1.1.3.2 Propagation
			1.1.3.3 Ramification
			1.1.3.4 Termination
		1.1.4 Mechanism of Photochemical Degradation of Poly(Vinyl Chloride)
			1.1.4.1 Initiation Mechanism with Formation of Free Radicals
			1.1.4.2 Mechanism of Propagation by Peroxide and Hydroperoxide Groups
			1.1.4.3 Mechanism of Initiation and Propagation by Free Radicals
			1.1.4.4 Termination Mechanism by Formation of Reticulations
		1.1.5 Degradation of Poly(Vinyl Chloride) During Processing
	1.2 Stabilization
		1.2.1 PVC Thermal Stabilizers
			1.2.1.1 Tin-Based Heat Stabilizers
				Tin Carboxylates
				Stabilizers Based on Zinc Complexes
				Co-stabilizers
				Calcium Carbonate
		1.2.2 Ultraviolet Protectors: Titanium Dioxide
		1.2.3 Ultraviolet Absorbers
		1.2.4 Processing Aids and Lubricants
			1.2.4.1 External Lubricants
			1.2.4.2 Internal Lubricants
			1.2.4.3 Other PVC Processing Aids
		1.2.5 Important Developments in Polymer Additives
			1.2.5.1 Flame Retardants
			1.2.5.2 Antioxidants
			1.2.5.3 Heat Stabilizers
			1.2.5.4 Light Stabilizers
			1.2.5.5 Other Specific Stabilizers
		1.2.6 Synergism and Antagonism Between Stabilizers
			1.2.6.1 Synergism
			1.2.6.2 Antagonism
	1.3 Developments in Polymeric Materials and Composites Designed for Outdoor Applications
2. Natural Weathering
	2.1 Fundamental Aspects That Influence Tests of Natural Weathering
	2.2 Difficulties Inherent in Natural Exposure Studies
	2.3 Variability Inherent to Natural Exposure Tests
	2.4 Climate Characterization of an Exposure Site
		2.4.1 Solar Radiation
			2.4.1.1 Infrared Radiation
			2.4.1.2 Visible Radiation
			2.4.1.3 Ultraviolet Radiation
				Variability of UV Radiation
		2.4.2 Temperature
		2.4.3 Water from Rain, Moisture, and Wetness
		2.4.4 Other Environmental Factors
	2.5 Synergism Between Atmospheric Agents
3. Outdoor Accelerated Weathering
	3.1 Types of Natural Solar Concentrators
		3.1.1 Q-TRAC
		3.1.2 EMMA/EMMAQUA
			3.1.2.1 Ultra-Accelerated Exposure Testing Devices
4. Artificial Accelerated Weathering
	4.1 Generalities
	4.2 Most Important Aspects and Experimental Parameters in Accelerated Artificial Weathering Tests
		4.2.1 Programming and Control of Radiation in Accelerated Artificial Weathering Tests
		4.2.2 Programming and Control of Temperature in Accelerated Artificial Weathering Tests
		4.2.3 Programming and Control of Relative Air Humidity in Accelerated Artificial Weathering Tests
		4.2.4 Presence of Solvents and Chemical Reagents
		4.2.5 Material Characteristics
	4.3 Types of Artificial Accelerated Weathering Devices
	4.4 Types of Radiation Sources in Accelerated Artificial Weathering Devices
		4.4.1 Carbon Arc Sources
		4.4.2 Xenon Arc Sources
		4.4.3 Medium/High Pressure Mercury Vapor Sources
	4.5 Acceleration Rate
	4.6 Inherent Constraints in Accelerated Artificial Weathering Studies
	4.7 Variability of Artificial Accelerated Weathering Methods
		4.7.1 Experimental Methods Used for Evaluating Variability
		4.7.2 Reliability of Artificial Accelerated Weathering Methods
		4.7.3 Simulation Ability
	4.8 Correlation between Natural Weathering and Artificial Accelerated Exposure
		4.8.1 Case Studies
		4.8.2 Phosphor-Coated Low Pressure Mercury Vapor Sources
5. Instrumental Methods of Analysis and Characterization
	5.1 Spectroscopic Techniques
		5.1.1 FTIR
		5.1.2 UV-Vis
		5.1.3 X-Ray Methods
		5.1.4 Other Spectroscopy Techniques
	5.2 Microscopy Methods
		5.2.1 SEM
	5.3 Thermal Analysis Methods
		5.3.1 DSC
		5.3.2 TGA
		5.3.3 DMA
	5.4 Methods for Measurement of Appearance
	5.5 Methods for Measuring Mechanical Properties
	5.6 Chromatographic Methods
	5.7 VOC Analysis
	5.8 Hyphenated Techniques
	5.9 Derivatization Techniques
6. Lifetime Prediction
	6.1 Generalities
	6.2 Reference Studies
	6.3 Lifetime Prediction Methodology
	6.4 Lifetime Prediction Models
		6.4.1 Stochastic/Probabilistic Durability Models
		6.4.2 Deterministic Methods for Service Life Prediction Based on Accelerated Testing Data
			6.4.2.1 Generalities
				Models for Property Decay Based on Kinetics
				Models Based on Arrhenius Law
				Models Based on Principle of Reciprocity
				Mathematical Models
7. Statistical Data Treatment
	7.1 Design of Experiments
	7.2 Principal Components Analysis
		7.2.1 PCA Application Example
	7.3 Distribution Analysis
	7.4 Regression Analysis
ANNEX: Standards (Tables AI.1, AI.2, AI.3, AI.4, AI.5, AI.6 and AI.7)
References
Recommended Bibliography
Index