Water Resources and Integrated Management of the United Arab Emirates (World Water Resources, 3)

Foreword
Acknowledgments
Contents
Abbreviations
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Photographs
Part I: Introduction to Water Resources
	Chapter 1: Introduction to Water Resources of the United Arab Emirates
	Chapter 2: Overview on Global Water Resources
		2.1 Global Water Resources
			2.1.1 Conventional Water Resources
				2.1.1.1 The World Oceans
				2.1.1.2 Water Resources in Continents
				2.1.1.3 Glaciers and Ice Sheets
				2.1.1.4 Groundwater
				2.1.1.5 Lakes and Reservoirs
				2.1.1.6 Swamps
				2.1.1.7 Rivers
			2.1.2 Nonconventional Water Resources
				2.1.2.1 Desalinated Water
				2.1.2.2 Treated Wastewater
			2.1.3 Water Demands
			2.1.4 Water Challenges
				2.1.4.1 Demographic Drivers
		2.2 Water Resources in the Middle East and North Africa Region
			2.2.1 Conventional Water Resources
				2.2.1.1 Surface Water
				2.2.1.2 Groundwater
			2.2.2 Nonconventional Water Resources
				2.2.2.1 Desalinated Water
				2.2.2.2 Treated Wastewater
			2.2.3 Water Demands
			2.2.4 Water Challenges
		2.3 Water Resources in the Arab Countries
			2.3.1 Conventional Water Resources
				2.3.1.1 Surface-Water Resources
				2.3.1.2 Groundwater Resources
			2.3.2 Nonconventional Water Resources
				2.3.2.1 Desalinated Water
				2.3.2.2 Treated Wastewater
				2.3.2.3 Other Non-conventional Water Sources
			2.3.3 Water Demand
			2.3.4 Water Challenges
				2.3.4.1 Overexploitation of Groundwater Resources
				2.3.4.2 Sustainable Management of Groundwater Resources
				2.3.4.3 Natural Variability of Water Resources
				2.3.4.4 Shared Water Resources
				2.3.4.5 Water Pollution
		2.4 Water Resources in the Arabian Gulf Region
			2.4.1 Conventional Water Resources
				2.4.1.1 Surface Water
				2.4.1.2 Groundwater
			2.4.2 Nonconventional Water Resources
				2.4.2.1 Desalinated Water
				2.4.2.2 Wastewater Treatment and Reuse
			2.4.3 Water Demand
			2.4.4 Water Challenges
				2.4.4.1 Reduction of Water Losses
				2.4.4.2 Industrial Water and Wastewater Management
		References
Part II: Geomorphology and Geology
	Chapter 3: Geomorphology and Geology and Their Influence on Water Resources
		3.1 Main Topographic and Morphologic Features
			3.1.1 Mountains
			3.1.2 Gravel Plains
			3.1.3 Sand Dunes
			3.1.4 Coastal Areas
			3.1.5 Drainage Basins
		3.2 General Overview of Aquifer Systems
		3.3 Geologic History and Hydrogeologic Characteristics
			3.3.1 Paleozoic Deposition and Water Occurrences
			3.3.2 Triassic Deposition and Water Potential
			3.3.3 Jurassic Deposition and Water Potential
			3.3.4 Cretaceous Deposition and Water Potential
			3.3.5 Cenozoic Deposition and Water Potential
		3.4 Stratigraphic Units of Surface Outcrops
		3.5 Geologic Structures
			3.5.1 Surface Geologic Structures
				3.5.1.1 Ru’us Al Jibal
				3.5.1.2 Dibba Zone
				3.5.1.3 Northern Ophiolite Zone
				3.5.1.4 Southern Ophiolite Zone
				3.5.1.5 Hatta Zone
				3.5.1.6 Wadi Ham Line
				3.5.1.7 Al Fayah Mountains
				3.5.1.8 Al Ain Mountains
			3.5.2 Subsurface Geologic Structures
		References
Part III: Climate and Water Balance
	Chapter 4: Climate Conditions and Their Impact on Water Resources
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Solar Radiation
		4.3 Air Temperature
		4.4 Relative Humidity
		4.5 Wind Speed
		4.6 Evaporation
		4.7 Evapotranspiration
		4.8 Rainfall
		4.9 Global Warming and Climate Change
			4.9.1 The Impacts of Climate Change
			4.9.2 The UAE Efforts to Mitigate Climate Change
			4.9.3 Changes of Temperature in the UAE
			4.9.4 National Communications
		4.10 Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources
			4.10.1 Variations of Temperature and Rainfall
			4.10.2 Decline of Aquifer Recharge
			4.10.3 Shortage of Irrigation Water
			4.10.4 Depletion of Groundwater
			4.10.5 Increase of Soil Salinity
		4.11 Impact of Climate Change on Water-Resources Planning
		4.12 Modeling Climate Change
			4.12.1 Water Demand
			4.12.2 Water Supply
			4.12.3 Groundwater Supplies
		References
	Chapter 5: Climatic Water Balance
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Groundwater Recharge
		5.3 Hydraulic Conductivity
		5.4 Infiltration Capacity
		References
Part IV: Conventional Water Resources
	Section A: Surface Water
	Section B: Groundwater
	Chapter 6: Seasonal Floods: Harvesting and Contribution to Aquifers’ Recharge
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Morphometry
		6.3 Surface Runoff
		6.4 Rainfall–Runoff Relationship
		6.5 Estimation of Runoff Volume
		6.6 Rainfall-Reservoir Storage
			6.6.1 Input Data
			6.6.2 Model Calibration
			6.6.3 Storage Simulation
		6.7 Flash Floods
			6.7.1 Flash Floods Hazard
		6.8 Recharge Dams
		References
	Chapter 7: Natural Springs: Hydrogeology, Hydrogeochemistry and Therapeutic Value
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Locations of Springs
		7.3 Geologic Setting
		7.4 Rainfall
		7.5 Springs’ Discharge
		7.6 Rainfall-Discharge Relation
		7.7 Groundwater Levels–Discharge Relation
		7.8 Physical and Chemical Properties
			7.8.1 Physical Properties
			7.8.2 Chemical Properties
			7.8.3 Spring Water–Groundwater Relationship
		7.9 Springs’ Water Quality
		References
	Chapter 8: Aflaj Systems: History and Factors Affecting Recharge and Discharge
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Aflaj History
			8.2.1 Aflaj Construction and Maintenance
				8.2.1.1 Aflaj Construction
				8.2.1.2 Aflaj Maintenance
			8.2.2 Aflaj Administration
		8.3 Aflaj Discharge
			8.3.1 Factors Affecting Discharge, Water Quality and Water Use
				8.3.1.1 Climate Conditions
				8.3.1.2 Geologic Setting
				8.3.1.3 Human Activities
		8.4 Aflaj Water Quality
		8.5 Aflaj Water Use
		References
	Chapter 9: Limestone Aquifers
		9.1 Northern Limestone Aquifer
			9.1.1 Geological Setting of Wadi Al Bih
			9.1.2 Hydrogeology of the Wadi Al Bih Basin
			9.1.3 Hydrogeochemistry
			9.1.4 Isotope Hydrology
			9.1.5 Water Quality
			9.1.6 Water Problems
		9.2 Jabal Hafit Limestone Aquifer
			9.2.1 Hydrogeology of the Dammam Aquifer in Jabal Hafit
			9.2.2 Hydrogeochemistry
			9.2.3 Isotope Hydrology
			9.2.4 Geothermal Energy of Groundwater
			9.2.5 Groundwater Uses
		9.3 Limestone Aquifers in the Western Region
			9.3.1 Simsima Aquifer
			9.3.2 Umm Er Radhuma Aquifer
			9.3.3 Dammam Aquifer
		References
	Chapter 10: Ophiolite Aquifer
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Geomorphologic and Geologic Features
		10.3 Morphometry
		10.4 Geologic Setting
		10.5 Geologic Structure
		10.6 Hydrogeology
		10.7 Effect of Lineaments on Groundwater Levels
		10.8 Effect of Lineaments on Groundwater Chemistry
		References
	Chapter 11: Gravel Aquifers
		11.1 The Eastern Gravel Aquifer
			11.1.1 Geomorphology and Geologic Setting
			11.1.2 Hydrogeology
			11.1.3 Geoelectrical Investigations
				11.1.3.1 Wadi Al Ruheib
				11.1.3.2 Wadi Dadnah
				11.1.3.3 Wadi Basserah
				11.1.3.4 Wadi Wurrayah
				11.1.3.5 Wadi Al Tawiyean
			11.1.4 Hydrogeochemistry
			11.1.5 Isotope Hydrology
			11.1.6 Groundwater Uses
		11.2 The Western Gravel Aquifer
			11.2.1 Hydrogeology
			11.2.2 Hydrogeochemistry
				11.2.2.1 Electrical Conductivity and Salinity
				11.2.2.2 Systems of Groundwater Flow
				11.2.2.3 Major Ions and Hypothetical Salts
				11.2.2.4 Hydrochemical Profiles
				11.2.2.5 Minor Ions
				11.2.2.6 Trace Constituents
				11.2.2.7 Hydrochemical Coefficients
			11.2.3 Isotope Hydrology
			11.2.4 Groundwater Evaluation
		References
	Chapter 12: Liwa Quaternary Sand Aquifer
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Geologic Setting
			12.2.1 Tertiary Sediments
			12.2.2 Quaternary Deposits
		12.3 Hydrogeology
		12.4 Hydrogeochemistry
		12.5 Water Quality
		12.6 Isotope Hydrology
		References
	Chapter 13: Sand-and-Gravel Aquifer System
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Geomorphology and Geology
		13.3 Hydrogeology
			13.3.1 Groundwater-Flow Systems
		13.4 Hydrogeochemistry
			13.4.1 Major Ions
			13.4.2 Groundwater-Dissolved Salts
			13.4.3 Groundwater Types
			13.4.4 Hydrochemical Ratios
			13.4.5 Water Uses
		13.5 Isotope Hydrology
		References
Part V: Non-conventional Water Resources
	Chapter 14: Water Desalination: Environmental Impacts and Brine Management
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Desalination Technologies
		14.3 Environmental Challenges
			14.3.1 Physical Impacts
			14.3.2 Chemical Impacts
			14.3.3 Biological Impacts
		14.4 Alleviation Measures
			14.4.1 Zero-Brine Discharge
			14.4.2 Solar Pond Technology
			14.4.3 Use of Renewable Energy
			14.4.4 Research and Development
		References
	Chapter 15: Treated Wastewater: Quality Concerns and Potential Uses
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Evolution of Wastewater Treatment
		15.3 Wastewater Treatment Plants
		15.4 Quality of Treated Wastewater
			15.4.1 High Salinity
			15.4.2 Health Risks
			15.4.3 Biological Oxygen Demand
			15.4.4 Sewage Sludge
		15.5 Reuse of the Treated Effluents
		15.6 Applications of Treated Wastewater
			15.6.1 Environmental Use
			15.6.2 Urban Use
			15.6.3 Industrial Use
			15.6.4 Agricultural Use
		15.7 Regulations of Treated Wastewater
			15.7.1 Requirements for Treated Wastewater Used in Irrigation
			15.7.2 Requirements for Treated Sludge Used for Irrigation
		15.8 Advantages of Treated-Sewage Water
		15.9 Limitations on Usage of Treated-Sewage Water
		15.10 Public Awareness and Capacity Building
		15.11 Wastewater Treatment in Abu Dhabi
			15.11.1 Existing Wastewater Treatment Systems
			15.11.2 Domestic Wastewater Production and Reuse
			15.11.3 Industrial Wastewater Production
		15.12 Wastewater Treatment in Ras Al Khaimah
			15.12.1 Wastewater-Treatment Plants
			15.12.2 Wastewater-Treatment Levels
			15.12.3 Uses of Treated Wastewater
			15.12.4 Costs and Benefits of Wastewater Treatment
			15.12.5 Treated-Wastewater Quality Parameters
			15.12.6 Waste Disposal
			15.12.7 Health Risks
		References
Part VI: Water Challenges
	Chapter 16: Challenges Facing Water Resources
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Surface-Water Problems
			16.2.1 Floods
			16.2.2 Springs
			16.2.3 Aflaj
		16.3 Groundwater Problems
			16.3.1 Scarcity
			16.3.2 Depletion
			16.3.3 Water Logging
			16.3.4 Increasing Salinity
			16.3.5 Salt-Water Intrusion
			16.3.6 Water Hardness
			16.3.7 Unsuitability for Irrigation
			16.3.8 Water Pollution
			16.3.9 Earthquake Hazard
		16.4 Problems Related to Water Desalination
			16.4.1 Disposal of Reject Brine
			16.4.2 Impact of Pollution on Water Desalination
				16.4.2.1 Oil Pollution
				16.4.2.2 Thermal Pollution
				16.4.2.3 Algal Growth
				16.4.2.4 Salinity Problems
				16.4.2.5 Heavy-Metal Pollution
		16.5 Problems Related to Usage of Treated Sewage Water
		References
	Chapter 17: Drinking Water: Sources, Standards and Quality Issues
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Drinking-Water Standards
		17.3 Sources of Drinking Water
		17.4 pH and TDS
		17.5 Major Ions
			17.5.1 Cations
			17.5.2 Anions
		17.6 Minor Ions
		17.7 Trace Elements
		17.8 Drinking-Water Standards
		References
	Chapter 18: Groundwater: Quality Degradation and Water Pollution
		18.1 Wadi Al Bih Limestone Aquifer
			18.1.1 Introduction
			18.1.2 Field Work
			18.1.3 Chemical and Microbiological Analyses
			18.1.4 Microbiological Pollution
		18.2 Al Ain Limestone Aquifer
			18.2.1 Introduction
			18.2.2 Field Work and Laboratory Analyses
			18.2.3 Discussion of Results
		18.3 Fujairah Ophiolite Aquifer
			18.3.1 Introduction
			18.3.2 Field Work and Laboratory Analyses
			18.3.3 Discussion of Results
		18.4 Eastern Gravel Aquifer
			18.4.1 Introduction
			18.4.2 Model Assumption and Simulations
			18.4.3 Discussion of Results
		18.5 Western Gravel Aquifer
			18.5.1 Introduction
			18.5.2 Satellite Images and Water-Resources Data
			18.5.3 Discussion of Results
		18.6 Liwa Quaternary Sand Aquifer
			18.6.1 Introduction
			18.6.2 Field Work and Laboratory Analyses
			18.6.3 Discussion of Results
				18.6.3.1 Sources of Nitrate
				18.6.3.2 Land Use
				18.6.3.3 Major Ions Chemistry
		18.7 Quaternary Sand Aquifer in Ajman Emirate
			18.7.1 Introduction
			18.7.2 Field Work and Laboratory Analyses
			18.7.3 Discussion of Results
				18.7.3.1 Pollution Sources
			18.7.4 Natural Factors
				18.7.4.1 Geographic Location
				18.7.4.2 Climatic Conditions
				18.7.4.3 Hydrogeologic Setting
				18.7.4.4 Groundwater Chemistry
			18.7.5 Anthropogenic Factors
		References
Part VII: Integrated Water Resources Management
	Chapter 19: Water Conservation and Integrated Management
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Flood-Water Conservation
		19.3 Groundwater Conservation
		19.4 Desalinated Water
			19.4.1 Demand Management
			19.4.2 Supply Management
		19.5 Treated Wastewater
		19.6 Technological Solutions and Social Practices
			19.6.1 Controlling Water Wastage
			19.6.2 Minimizing Water Loss
			19.6.3 Sequential Water Use
			19.6.4 Water Tariffs
			19.6.5 Improved Planning
			19.6.6 Awareness
		References
	Chapter 20: Water Harvesting
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Traditional Water Harvesting Methods
			20.2.1 Surface Water Harvesting
				20.2.1.1 Rainwater Harvesting
				20.2.1.2 Barriers
				20.2.1.3 Habisas
				20.2.1.4 Berkas
			20.2.2 Groundwater Harvesting
				20.2.2.1 Aflaj Systems
		20.3 Modern Water Harvesting Methods
			20.3.1 Surface Water Harvesting
				20.3.1.1 Cloud Seeding
				20.3.1.2 Artificial Rain
				20.3.1.3 Recharge Dams
			20.3.2 Groundwater Harvesting
				20.3.2.1 Artificial Recharge
				20.3.2.2 Aquifer Storage and Recovery
				20.3.2.3 Subsurface Dams
		References
	Chapter 21: Advanced Agricultural Technologies
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 Agriculture and Food Production
		21.3 Sources of Irrigation Water
		21.4 Irrigation Methods
			21.4.1 Conventional Irrigation Methods
			21.4.2 Advanced Irrigation Methods
				21.4.2.1 Drip Irrigation
				21.4.2.2 Sprinkler Irrigation
				21.4.2.3 Bubbles Irrigation
		21.5 Protected Agriculture
		21.6 Biosaline Agriculture
			21.6.1 Water Conservation
			21.6.2 Water Reuse
			21.6.3 Water Data
			21.6.4 Irrigation Efficiency
			21.6.5 Water Storage
			21.6.6 Seawater Use in Biofuel
		21.7 Aquaculture and Hydroponics
		21.8 Agriculture and the Environment
		21.9 Agriculture Policies
		References
Part VIII: Modern Techniques in Water
Investigations
	Chapter 22: Application of Remote-Sensing Techniques for Water-Resources Investigations in the UAE
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Image Processing
		22.3 Image Enhancement
		22.4 Information Extraction
			22.4.1 Infiltration Rate
			22.4.2 Uniformity Coefficient
			22.4.3 Classification of Dune and Interdune Areas
			22.4.4 Calculation of Natural Evaporation
		References
	Chapter 23: Application of GIS Techniques for Water Resources Investigations in the UAE
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 Geomorphology and Geology
			23.2.1 Geomorphology
			23.2.2 Geologic Setting
		23.3 Hydrogeology and Hydrogeochemistry
			23.3.1 Hydrogeology
			23.3.2 Hydrogeochemistry
		23.4 GIS Model
			23.4.1 Model Construction
			23.4.2 Model Inputs
			23.4.3 Model Output
		References
	Chapter 24: Application of Natural Isotopes Techniques for Water Resources Investigations in the UAE
		24.1 Introduction
		24.2 Sources of Rain Water
		24.3 Origin and Age of Groundwater
		24.4 Natural Isotopes in Groundwater
			24.4.1 Wadi Al Bih Limestone Aquifer
			24.4.2 Jabal Hafit Limestone Aquifer
			24.4.3 Eastern Gravel Aquifer
			24.4.4 Western Gravel Aquifer
			24.4.5 Liwa Quaternary Sand Aquifer
		24.5 Source(s) of Increasing Groundwater Salinity
		24.6 Assessment of Groundwater Pollution
			24.6.1 Oil-Field Brines
			24.6.2 Nitrate Pollution
		24.7 Efficiency of Groundwater Recharge Dams
		References
	Chapter 25: Application of Modeling Techniques for Water-Resource Investigations in the UAE
		25.1 Introduction
		25.2 Wadi Al Bih Model
			25.2.1 Model Assumptions
			25.2.2 Boundary Conditions
			25.2.3 Input Data
			25.2.4 Simulation
				25.2.4.1 Calibration
				25.2.4.2 Prediction
		25.3 Groundwater Flow Models for the Al Ain Area
			25.3.1 Al Jaww Plain Model
			25.3.2 West Al Ain Model
		References
Part IX: Water Governance
	Chapter 26: Water Governance in the UAE
		26.1 Introduction
		26.2 Historical Overview
			26.2.1 Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
			26.2.2 General Secretariat of UAE Municipalities
			26.2.3 General Water Resources Authority
			26.2.4 Federal Environmental Agency
			26.2.5 Ministry of Environment and Water
			26.2.6 Ministry of Climate Change and Environment
		26.3 Administrative Status of Water Authorities
			26.3.1 Federal Authorities
				26.3.1.1 Ministry of Climate Change and Environment
				26.3.1.2 Ministry of Energy
				26.3.1.3 Federal Electricity and Water Authority
				26.3.1.4 National Center of Meteorology and Seismology
			26.3.2 Local Authorities
				26.3.2.1 Environment Agency of Abu Dhabi
				26.3.2.2 Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority
				26.3.2.3 Dubai Electricity and Water Authority
				26.3.2.4 Sharjah Electricity and Water Authority
				26.3.2.5 Ras Al Khaimah Environment Protection and Development Authority
				26.3.2.6 Ajman Municipality and Planning Department
				26.3.2.7 Umm Al Quwain Municipality
				26.3.2.8 Fujairah Municipality
		26.4 Water Laws
			26.4.1 Conventional Water-Resources Laws
				26.4.1.1 Surface Water Laws
				26.4.1.2 Groundwater Laws
			26.4.2 Nonconventional Water-Resources Laws
				26.4.2.1 Desalinated Water Laws
				26.4.2.2 Treated Wastewater Laws
		26.5 Institutional Development
			26.5.1 Need for Federal Water Laws
			26.5.2 Establishment of a Federal Water Authority
		References
Part X: Water Resources and Demand
Management
	Chapter 27: Water Resources and Water Demands in the UAE
		27.1 Introduction
		27.2 Water Resources
			27.2.1 Conventional Water Resources
				27.2.1.1 Seasonal Floods
				27.2.1.2 Springs
				27.2.1.3 Aflaj
				27.2.1.4 Groundwater
			27.2.2 Non-conventional Water Resources
				27.2.2.1 Desalination Water
				27.2.2.2 Treated Wastewater
		27.3 Water Demands
			27.3.1 Agricultural Water Demand
			27.3.2 Municipal Water Demand
			27.3.3 Industrial Water Demand
		27.4 Demand-Supply Balance
			27.4.1 Present Demand-Supply Balance
			27.4.2 Future Demand-Supply Balance
			27.4.3 Future Water Demand
			27.4.4 Future Water Supply
		27.5 Integrated Water Resources Management Strategy
		References
	Chapter 28: Conclusions
		28.1 Introduction
		28.2 Overview on Global Water Resources
		28.3 Geomorphology and Geology
		28.4 Climate Conditions and Their Impact on Water Resources
		28.5 Climatic Water Balance
		28.6 Seasonal Floods
		28.7 Natural Springs
		28.8 Aflaj Systems
		28.9 Limestone Aquifers
		28.10 Ophiolite Aquifer
		28.11 Gravel Aquifers
			28.11.1 The Eastern Gravel Aquifer
			28.11.2 The Western Gravel Aquifer
		28.12 Liwa Quaternary Sand Aquifer
		28.13 Sand-and-Gravel Aquifer System
		28.14 Desalinated Water
		28.15 Treated Wastewater
		28.16 Challenges Facing Water Resources
		28.17 Drinking Water
		28.18 Groundwater Pollution
		28.19 Water Conservation and Integrated Management
		28.20 Water Harvesting
		28.21 Advanced Agricultural Technologies
		28.22 Application of Remote-Sensing Techniques
		28.23 Application of GIS Techniques for Water Resources
		28.24 Application of Natural Isotopes to Water Resources
		28.25 Application Modeling Techniques for Water Resources
		28.26 Water Governance
		28.27 Water Resources and Water Demand
		References
Index