Waste to Energy: Prospects and Applications

Contents
About the Editors
Part I: Introductory Chapters
	1: Emerging Frontiers of Microbes as Agro-Waste Recycler
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Agro-Waste
			1.2.1 Agricultural Residues
			1.2.2 Processed Agricultural Residues
		1.3 Microbes and Agro-Waste Bioconversion/Role of Microorganism in Bioconversion of Agro-Waste
			1.3.1 Bacterial Bioconversion
			1.3.2 Fungal and Mycorrhizal Bioconversion
		1.4 Factor Affecting Microbial Agro-Waste Conversion
		1.5 Biotechnological Approaches of Microbial Bioconversion of Agro-Waste
		1.6 Bioconversion of Agro-Waste in Bio-Compost for Sustainable Agriculture
		1.7 Develop Eco-Innovative Strategies to Agro-Waste Conversion to Farmers
		1.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	2: Microbes: The Next-Generation Bioenergy Producers
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Bioenergy Sources
		2.3 Microbes as a Source of Biofuel
			2.3.1 Oleaginous Bacteria
			2.3.2 Yeast and Mould
			2.3.3 Microalgae
		2.4 Role of Microbes in Biomass Conversion and Bioenergy Products
			2.4.1 Bioethanol Production
			2.4.2 Biogas Production
			2.4.3 Biohydrogen Production
			2.4.4 Biodiesel Production
			2.4.5 Bioelectricity Production and Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC)
		2.5 Approach for Characterizing and Improving Microbial Communities
			2.5.1 Metagenomics and Next-Generation Sequencing
			2.5.2 Functional Genomics/Metabolomics
			2.5.3 Metabolic Engineering and Genetic Engineering
			2.5.4 Synthetic Biology
		2.6 Pros and Cons of Advanced Biofuels
		2.7 Impediments to the Commercialization of Microalgal Fuel and Mitigation
		2.8 Conclusion
		References
	3: Emerging and Eco-friendly Approaches for Waste Management
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Global Trends in Waste Production and Management
		3.3 Waste Types and Their Effects on the Environment
		3.4 Physical, Chemical and Thermo-chemical Methods of Waste Treatment
			3.4.1 Physical Methods
				3.4.1.1 Adsorption
				3.4.1.2 Electrodialysis
				3.4.1.3 Ion Exchange
				3.4.1.4 Sedimentation
				3.4.1.5 Photo-Catalysis
				3.4.1.6 Membrane Filtration
			3.4.2 Chemical Methods
				3.4.2.1 Oxidation
				3.4.2.2 Coagulation
				3.4.2.3 Chemical Precipitation
			3.4.3 Thermo-Chemical Waste Treatment
				3.4.3.1 Combined Heat and Power
				3.4.3.2 Pyrolysis
				3.4.3.3 Gasification
				3.4.3.4 Incineration
				3.4.3.5 Refuse Derived Fuel Pellet Formation
				3.4.3.6 Catalytic Waste Conversion
		3.5 Eco-friendly Approaches to Waste Treatments
		3.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects
		References
	4: Eco-friendly Microbial Biofuel Production from Waste
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Types of Biofuels
		4.3 Microbes as Biofactories for Biofuel Production
		4.4 Upscaling of Biofuel Production by Metabolic Engineering
		4.5 Microbes as a Source of Bioelectrochemical Devices for the Production of Bioelectricity and Biohydrogen
		4.6 Microalgae as a Source for the Production of Biofuel
		4.7 Challenges and Prospects
		4.8 Conclusion
		References
	5: Bioremediation: Current Research Trends and Applications
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Principle
		5.3 Factors Affecting Bioremediation
			5.3.1 Biological Factors
			5.3.2 Environmental Factors
				5.3.2.1 Nutrients
				5.3.2.2 Temperature
				5.3.2.3 Oxygen Concentration
				5.3.2.4 Moisture
				5.3.2.5 pH
				5.3.2.6 Metal Ions
			5.3.3 Types of Bioremediation
		5.4 Ex situ Bioremediation Techniques
			5.4.1 Landfarming
			5.4.2 Composting
			5.4.3 Biopile
			5.4.4 Windrows
		5.5 In situ Bioremediation Techniques
			5.5.1 Bioventing
			5.5.2 Biosparging
			5.5.3 Biostimulation
			5.5.4 Bioaugmentation
			5.5.5 Bioattenuation/Natural Attenuation
			5.5.6 Phytoremediation
		5.6 Bioreactor
		5.7 Merits of Bioremediation
		5.8 Demerits of Bioremediation
		5.9 Applications
			5.9.1 Microbial Remediation of Contaminants (Heavy Metals)
			5.9.2 Bioremediation of Pesticides
		5.10 Trends in Bioremediation
			5.10.1 Biosurfactants
			5.10.2 Oxygen Releasing Compounds
			5.10.3 Molecular Biological Tools and Techniques
			5.10.4 Bioinformatics
			5.10.5 Nanotechnology
		5.11 Conclusion
		References
	6: Bioremediation: An Approach for Environmental Pollutants Detoxification
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Causes and Consequences of Environmental Pollution
			6.2.1 Intense Use of Chemical Fertilizers
			6.2.2 Indiscriminate Use of Pesticides and Insecticides
			6.2.3 Industrial Pollution
		6.3 Role of Biotechnology in Pollution Management
		6.4 Bioremediation
			6.4.1 Principle Involved in Bioremediation
			6.4.2 Microbes in Bioremediation
				6.4.2.1 Aerobic
				6.4.2.2 Anaerobic
				6.4.2.3 Psychrophiles
				6.4.2.4 Ligninolytic Fungi
				6.4.2.5 Methanogenic Bacteria and Methanotrophs
				6.4.2.6 Halophiles
				6.4.2.7 Cyanobacteria
				6.4.2.8 Microalgal
			6.4.3 New Technologies
		6.5 Methods of Bioremediation
			6.5.1 In Situ Bioremediation
				6.5.1.1 Bioventing
				6.5.1.2 Bioaugmentation
				6.5.1.3 Biosparging
			6.5.2 Ex Situ Bioremediation
				6.5.2.1 Composting
				6.5.2.2 Biopiles
				6.5.2.3 Land Farming
		6.6 Factors Affecting Microbial Bioremediation
			6.6.1 Microbial Factors
			6.6.2 Environmental Factors
			6.6.3 Contaminants
		6.7 Effectiveness of Bioremediation and its Limitations
			6.7.1 Advantages
			6.7.2 Disadvantages
		6.8 Conclusion
		References
	7: Bioethanol Extraction and Its Production from Agricultural Residues for Sustainable Development
		7.1 Introduction
			7.1.1 Agricultural Residue
			7.1.2 Agro-Waste Composition
			7.1.3 Agricultural Residues Available for Energy Plantation
		7.2 Global Scenario of Agro-Lignocellulosic Residues
			7.2.1 Other Lignocellulosic Residues
		7.3 New Directions to Overcome the Problems of Agro-Industrial Waste Contamination
		7.4 Methods of Extracting Energy from Biomass
			7.4.1 Conversion of Agro-Residues into Bioethanol: Processes Involved for Bioethanol Production
			7.4.2 Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass
			7.4.3 Saccharification
			7.4.4 Fermentation of Sugar to Ethanol Recovery
		7.5 Agro-Industrial Wastes as Potential Substrates in India for Alternative Fuel Production
		7.6 Latest Research Studies on Bioethanol
		7.7 Research Gaps while Producing Bioethanol
		7.8 Conclusion and Future Outlook
		References
Part II: Biotechnological Approaches
	8: Byproduct Valorization of Vegetable Oil Industry Through Biotechnological Approach
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 World Scenario of Vegetable Oil Economy
			8.2.1 Oil Extraction Process
		8.3 Physicochemical Nature of Vegetable Oils (or Lipids)
			8.3.1 Physical Nature of Lipids
			8.3.2 Chemical Nature of Lipids
		8.4 Nutritional Boon of Vegetable Oil Cake/Meals
		8.5 Antinutritional Bane of Vegetable Oil Cakes/Meals
			8.5.1 The Need for Testing Aflatoxin in Cow Milk
		8.6 Utility of Oil Cake/Meals
			8.6.1 Human Nutrition
			8.6.2 Livestock Nutrition
			8.6.3 Poultry Nutrition
			8.6.4 Fishery Nutrition
			8.6.5 Plant Nutrition and Soil Health
		8.7 Approaches for Valorization of Vegetable Oil Cakes/Meals
			8.7.1 Conventional Approaches for Improving Utilization of Oil Cakes/Meals
				8.7.1.1 Physical Treatments
				8.7.1.2 Chemical Treatments
			8.7.2 Biotechnological Approaches for Valorizing Vegetable Oil Cakes/Meals
				8.7.2.1 Genotype-Based Approach
					Mutation Breeding
					In Vitro Culturing
					Gene Pyramiding
					Genetic Engineering
						Genome Editing
				8.7.2.2 Fermentation Process-Based Approach
					Altering Composition of Oil Cake/Meal
					Enhancing Digestibility of Oil Cake/Meal
		8.8 Future Prospects
		8.9 Conclusion
		References
	9: Omics Tools: Approaches for Microbiomes Analysis to Enhance Bioenergy Production
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Biofuel Types and Microbes for Production.
			9.2.1 Bioalcohols
			9.2.2 Biogas
			9.2.3 Biodiesel
		9.3 Global Biofuel Production and Usage
		9.4 Omics Tools
			9.4.1 Genomics
			9.4.2 Transcriptomics
			9.4.3 Proteomics
			9.4.4 Metabolomics
		9.5 Contribution of Omics Tools in Microbiome Analysis for Bioenergy Production Enhancement
			9.5.1 Genomics and Transcriptomics
			9.5.2 Proteomics
			9.5.3 Metabolomics
		9.6 Conclusion
		9.7 Prospects
		References
	10: Omics (Genomics, Proteomics, Metabolomics, Etc.) Tools to Study the Environmental Microbiome and Bioremediation
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Microbiome
			10.2.1 Human and Microbiome
			10.2.2 Environment and Microbiome
			10.2.3 Biotechnology and Microbiome
		10.3 Omics Technologies in Ecological Bioremediation
			10.3.1 Genomics
			10.3.2 Transcriptomics
			10.3.3 Proteomics
		10.4 Comparative Analysis of Omics in Bioremediation
		10.5 The Most Current Omics
			10.5.1 Metagenomics
			10.5.2 Metatranscriptomics
			10.5.3 Metabolomics
		10.6 Conclusion
		References
	11: Microalgae: Omics Approaches for Biofuel Production and Biomedical Research
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Proteomics and Molecular Examination of Microalgal Lipid Accumulation
		11.3 TAG Synthesis Pathways in Algae
		11.4 Omics Technology
		11.5 Genomics and Transcriptomics of Microalgae
		11.6 Proteomics in Microalgae
		11.7 Proteomics: Lipid Production by the Gamma Irradiation Method
		11.8 Types of Proteomics
			11.8.1 Expression Proteomics
			11.8.2 Structural Proteomics
			11.8.3 Functional Proteomics
		11.9 Protein Extraction Methods
			11.9.1 Direct Lysis Buffer Method
			11.9.2 TCA-Acetone Method
			11.9.3 Phenol Method
			11.9.4 Phenol/TCA-Acetone Method
		11.10 Technologies of Proteomics
			11.10.1 Mass Spectrophotometer
			11.10.2 Array-Based Proteomics
			11.10.3 Next-Generation Proteomic Tools
			11.10.4 Quantification Methods
		11.11 Post-Translation Modification
		11.12 Metabolomics Approaches in Microalgae
		11.13 Metabolic Engineering in Algae
		11.14 Future Needs: Integrating ``Omics´´ in Systems Biology
		11.15 Applications of Omics Approaches
			11.15.1 Oncology
			11.15.2 Biomedical Applications
			11.15.3 Agricultural Applications
			11.15.4 Food Microbiology
		11.16 Conclusions
		References
Part III: Industrial Waste Management
	12: Waste Utilization and Minimization in Food Industry
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Current Status of Food Waste Generation
		12.3 Minimization and Utilization of Food Waste as Energy Source
			12.3.1 Ethanol Production by Food Industry Waste
			12.3.2 Biodiesel Production by Food Industry Waste
			12.3.3 Hydrogen and Methane Gas Production by Food Industry Waste
			12.3.4 Advantages of Utilization of Food Waste as Energy Source
		12.4 Minimization and Utilization of Food Waste as Livestock Feed
			12.4.1 Poultry Industry
			12.4.2 Dairy Cattles
		12.5 Utilization of Fish Processing Industrial Waste
		12.6 Utilization of Fruits and Vegetables Industrial Waste
		12.7 Utilization of Dairy Industrial Waste
		12.8 Future Prospects
		12.9 Conclusion
		References
	13: Ligninolytic Microbes and Their Role in Effluent Management of Pulp and Paper Industry
		13.1 Introduction
			13.1.1 Lignin
			13.1.2 Papermaking Process
				13.1.2.1 Wood Pulping
				13.1.2.2 Pulp Bleaching
				13.1.2.3 Papermaking
			13.1.3 Environmental Pollution
		13.2 Biobleaching
		13.3 Fungus and Lignin Degradation
			13.3.1 White-Rot Fungi
				13.3.1.1 Ligninolytic Enzyme
			13.3.2 Brown-Rot Fungi
			13.3.3 Soft-Rot Fungi
		13.4 Bacteria and Lignin Degradation
		13.5 Research Gaps and Future Outlook
		13.6 Conclusions
		References
	14: Production of Polyhydroxyalkanoates Using Waste as Raw Materials
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Applications of Bioplastic
		14.3 Upstream Processing for PHA Production
			14.3.1 Biosynthesis of PHA
			14.3.2 Raw Materials for PHA Production
				14.3.2.1 Different Waste Streams for PHA Production
					Lipids and Oil Like a Waste
					Crude Glycerol from Biofuel Industry
					Whey from Dairy Industry
					Lignocellulosic Biomass
					Bagasse from Sugars Industry
			14.3.3 Factors Affecting PHA Production
				14.3.3.1 Carbon Content
				14.3.3.2 Nitrogen Content
				14.3.3.3 DO (Dissolved Oxygen)
				14.3.3.4 pH
			14.3.4 Strategies for PHA Production
				14.3.4.1 Pretreatment for Whey
				14.3.4.2 Pretreatment for Sludge
				14.3.4.3 Pretreatment of Cellulosic Waste
				14.3.4.4 Pretreatment of Crude Glycerol
			14.3.5 PHA Production Using Waste Sources
			14.3.6 Use of Mixed Culture for PHA Production
			14.3.7 Operating Mode for Fermentation
				14.3.7.1 Sequencing Batch Reactor
				14.3.7.2 Feast Famine Cycle-Completely Aerobic or Anaerobic/Aerobic Combination
				14.3.7.3 Fed-Batch for PHA Accumulation
		14.4 Downstream Operation for PHA Recovery and Purification
		14.5 Economic Evaluation for PHA Production
		14.6 Recent Advancements for PHA Production
		14.7 Conclusion
		References
	15: Newer Aspects of Waste-to-Valorization Technologies in Food Industry
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Food Wastage
		15.3 Food Wastage Crises in India
		15.4 Causes of Food Wastage
		15.5 Impacts of Food Wastage
			15.5.1 Environmental Impact
			15.5.2 Economic Impact
			15.5.3 Social Impact
		15.6 Food Waste to Energy Generation
			15.6.1 Thermal and Thermochemical Methods
				15.6.1.1 Incineration
				15.6.1.2 Pyrolysis and Gasification
				15.6.1.3 Hydrothermal Carbonization
			15.6.2 Biological Methods
				15.6.2.1 Anaerobic Digestion
				15.6.2.2 Fermentation
		15.7 Recent Developments and Strategies for the Utilization and Management of Food Wastes
			15.7.1 Food Waste Valorization Techniques
			15.7.2 Products Recovered from Food Industry Wastes and By-Products
				15.7.2.1 Fruits and Vegetables Industry
				15.7.2.2 Grain Processing Industry Wastes
				15.7.2.3 Brewery and Winery Industry Wastes
				15.7.2.4 Marine Food Processing Industry Wastes
				15.7.2.5 Meat Processing Industry Wastes
				15.7.2.6 Dairy Processing Industry Wastes
				15.7.2.7 Different Roles of Whey Proteins
					Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidants
					Immunomodulation
					Anticancer
					Antidiabetic
		15.8 Challenges and Research in Food Waste Management
		15.9 Conclusion and Future Prospects
		References
	16: Xylanase in Waste Management and Its Industrial Applications
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Xylanase
			16.2.1 Classification of Xylanase
		16.3 Microbial Diversity for Xylanase Production
			16.3.1 Thermostable Xylanase
			16.3.2 Xylanase Production
			16.3.3 Xylanase Assay
		16.4 Industrial Applications of Xylanases
			16.4.1 Bioenergy Production: Biofuel Industry
			16.4.2 Pulp and Paper Industry
			16.4.3 Food Industry
			16.4.4 Animal Feedstocks
		16.5 Future Scope
		16.6 Conclusions
		References
	17: Organic Acid Production from Agricultural Waste
		17.1 Introduction
			17.1.1 Agricultural Waste: A Historical Juncture
			17.1.2 The Panoply of Building Blocks: Organic Acids
		17.2 Microbial Organic Acid Production
			17.2.1 Citric Acid: From Lemons to Filamentous Fungi
				17.2.1.1 Brief History
				17.2.1.2 Attributes with Applicability
				17.2.1.3 Production Conditions
			17.2.2 Succinic Acid: Amber Acid
				17.2.2.1 Brief History
				17.2.2.2 Attributes with Applicability
				17.2.2.3 Production Conditions
			17.2.3 Gluconic Acid: Platform Chemical
				17.2.3.1 Brief History
				17.2.3.2 Attributes with Applicability
				17.2.3.3 Production Conditions
			17.2.4 Kojic Acid: From Shoyu to Cosmetics, Koji´s Journey of a Century
				17.2.4.1 Brief History
				17.2.4.2 Attributes with Applicability
				17.2.4.3 Production Conditions
		17.3 Filamentous Fungi as Cell Factories: Commercial Successes
			17.3.1 Mechanism of Citric Acid Production with Aspergillus niger
			17.3.2 Mechanism Involved for Succinic Acid
			17.3.3 Gluconic Acid Production Mechanism with Aspergillus niger
			17.3.4 Mechanism Involved for Kojic Acid
		17.4 Future Implications
		17.5 Conclusion
		References