Vitamins in foods: analysis, bioavailability, and stability

Front cover......Page 1
Dedication......Page 10
About the Author......Page 12
Preface......Page 14
Contents......Page 16
Part I......Page 34
   1.1 Definition and Classification of Vitamins......Page 36
   1.3 Vitamin Requirements......Page 37
   1.4 Vitamin Enhancement of Foods......Page 38
    1.5.1 Water Activity and Lipid Oxidation......Page 39
    1.5.2 First-Order Kinetics......Page 40
    1.5.3 Effects of Food Processing on Vitamin Retention......Page 42
    1.5.6 Effects of Domestic Cooking on Vitamin Retention......Page 50
   References......Page 51
   2.1 General Principles of Solute Translocation......Page 56
    2.2.1 The Villus......Page 57
    2.2.3 Adaptive Regulation of Intestinal Nutrient Transport......Page 58
    2.2.4 Digestion, Absorption, and Transport of Dietary Fat......Page 60
    2.2.5 Transport of Glucose and Fructose: A Model for the Absorption of Some Water-Soluble Vitamins......Page 61
    2.2.6 Effects of Dietary Fiber on Absorption of Nutrients......Page 63
    2.3.1 General Concepts......Page 65
    2.3.2 Methods for Estimating Vitamin Bioavailability in Human Subjects......Page 66
   References......Page 69
   3.1 Background......Page 72
    3.2.1 Structure and Biopotency......Page 73
    3.2.2 Physicochemical Properties......Page 76
    3.3.1 Occurrence......Page 78
    3.3.2 Stability......Page 81
    3.3.3 Vitamin A Equivalency......Page 93
   3.4 Intestinal Absorption, Metabolism, and Transport......Page 94
    3.4.1 Absorption......Page 95
    3.4.2 Metabolic Events Within the Enterocyte......Page 96
    3.4.4 Plasma Transport of Retinol and Carotenoids......Page 99
    3.5.1 Introduction......Page 100
    3.5.2 In vivo Methods of Assessing b-Carotene Bioavailability......Page 101
    3.5.3 In vitro Methods of Assessing b-Carotene Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability......Page 107
    3.5.5 Dietary Factors Affecting the Bioavailability of b-Carotene......Page 110
    3.6.1 Effect of Vegetable Consumption on Vitamin A Status in Populations at Risk of Vitamin A Deficiency......Page 121
    3.6.2 Effects of b-Carotene Supplementation on Breastmilk Carotenoids......Page 123
   References......Page 125
   4.1 Background......Page 140
    4.2.2 Physicochemical Properties......Page 141
    4.3.1 Occurrence......Page 143
    4.3.2 Stability......Page 145
    4.3.4 Applicability of Analytical Techniques......Page 146
   4.4 Intestinal Absorption, Transport, and Metabolism......Page 147
   4.5 Bioavailability......Page 148
   References......Page 149
   5.1 Background......Page 152
    5.2.1 Structure......Page 153
    5.2.2 Biopotency......Page 154
    5.2.3 Physicochemical Properties......Page 155
    5.3.1 Occurrence......Page 156
    5.3.2 Stability......Page 159
   5.4 Intestinal Absorption and Transport......Page 161
    5.4.3 Preferential Secretion of 2R-a-Tocopherol Stereoisomers by the Liver......Page 162
    5.5.1 Efficiency of Vitamin E Absorption......Page 163
    5.5.3 Effects of Dietary Fiber on Vitamin E Absorption......Page 164
   References......Page 165
   6.1 Background......Page 170
    6.2.1 Structure and Biopotency......Page 171
    6.3.1 Occurrence......Page 172
    6.3.2 Stability......Page 174
    6.3.3 Applicability of Analytical Techniques......Page 175
    6.4.2 Bacterially Synthesized Menaquinones as a Possible Endogenous Source of Vitamin K......Page 176
   6.5 Bioavailability......Page 178
   References......Page 179
    7.2.1 Structure and Potency......Page 182
    7.2.2 Physicochemical Properties......Page 183
    7.3.1 Occurrence......Page 184
    7.3.2 Stability......Page 185
   7.4 Intestinal Absorption......Page 187
    7.5.1 Bioavailability of Thiamin in Foods......Page 188
    7.5.2 Antithiamin Factors......Page 189
    7.5.3 Effects of Alcohol......Page 192
   References......Page 193
    8.2.1 Structure and Potency......Page 198
    8.2.2 Physicochemical Properties......Page 200
    8.3.1 Occurrence......Page 201
    8.3.2 Stability......Page 202
    8.4.1 Absorption of Dietary Vitamin B2......Page 204
    8.4.2 Absorption of Bacterially Synthesized Vitamin B2 in the Large Intestine......Page 205
   References......Page 206
   9.1 Background......Page 210
    9.2.1 Structure and Potency......Page 211
    9.3.1 Occurrence......Page 212
    9.3.2 Stability......Page 214
    9.3.3 Applicability of Analytical Techniques......Page 215
    9.5.1 Niacin......Page 216
   References......Page 220
   10.1 Background......Page 222
    10.2.1 Structure and Potency......Page 223
    10.2.2 Physicochemical Properties......Page 224
    10.3.1 Occurrence......Page 226
    10.3.2 Stability......Page 227
    10.3.3 Applicability of Analytical Techniques......Page 230
   10.4 Intestinal Absorption......Page 231
    10.5.1 Bioavailability of Vitamin B6 in Foods......Page 232
    10.5.3 Effects of Dietary Fiber......Page 234
    10.5.4 Glycosylated Forms of Vitamin B6......Page 235
   References......Page 238
    11.2.1 Structure and Potency......Page 244
    11.2.2 Physicochemical Properties......Page 245
    11.3.2 Stability......Page 246
    11.4.1 Digestion and Absorption of Dietary Pantothenic Acid......Page 249
   11.5 Bioavailability......Page 250
   References......Page 251
    12.2.1 Structure and Potency......Page 254
    12.2.2 Physicochemical Properties......Page 255
    12.3.2 Stability......Page 256
    12.3.3 Applicability of Analytical Techniques......Page 258
    12.4.1 Digestion and Absorption of Dietary Biotin......Page 259
    12.4.2 Absorption of Bacterially Synthesized Biotin in the Large Intestine......Page 260
   12.5 Bioavailability......Page 261
   References......Page 262
   13.1 Background......Page 264
    13.2.1 Structure and Potency......Page 265
    13.2.2 Physicochemical Properties......Page 266
    13.3.1 Occurrence......Page 269
    13.3.2 Stability......Page 271
    13.3.3 Applicability of Analytical Techniques......Page 277
    13.4.1 Deconjugation of Polyglutamyl Folate......Page 278
    13.4.2 Absorption of Dietary Folate......Page 279
    13.4.3 Influence of Folate-Binding Protein on the Absorption of Folate from Milk......Page 280
    13.4.5 Salvage of Dietary 5-Methyl-5,6-DHF......Page 282
    13.4.6 Absorption of Bacterially Synthesized Folate in the Large Intestine......Page 283
    13.4.8 Folate Homeostasis......Page 284
    13.5.2 Methods for Assessing Folate Bioavailability......Page 285
    13.5.3 Inherent Bioavailability of Monoglutamyl and Polyglutamyl Folates......Page 289
    13.5.4 Bioavailability of Naturally Occurring Folate in Fruits and Vegetables......Page 290
    13.5.5 Bioavailability of Folate in Milk......Page 291
    13.5.6 Effects of Soluble Food Components on Folate Bioavailability......Page 293
    13.5.7 Effects of Dietary Fiber on Folate Bioavailability......Page 295
    13.5.8 Bioavailability of Folate in Fortified Foods......Page 296
   References......Page 297
   14.1 Background......Page 308
    14.2.1 Structure and Potency......Page 309
    14.2.2 Physicochemical Properties......Page 310
    14.3.1 Occurrence......Page 311
    14.3.2 Stability......Page 312
   14.4 Absorption and Conservation......Page 314
    14.4.1 Digestion and Absorption of Dietary Vitamin B12......Page 315
    14.5.1 Efficiency of Absorption......Page 316
    14.5.2 Bioavailability Studies......Page 317
   References......Page 318
   15.1 Background......Page 322
    15.2.1 Structure and Potency......Page 323
    15.2.2 Physicochemical Properties......Page 324
    15.3.1 Occurrence......Page 325
    15.3.2 Stability......Page 327
    15.3.3 Applicability of Analytical Techniques......Page 332
    15.4.1 General Principles......Page 333
    15.4.2 Transport Mechanisms......Page 334
    15.4.3 Efficiency of Ascorbate Absorption in Humans......Page 335
    15.5.1 Bioavailability of Vitamin C in Foods......Page 336
    15.5.2 Effects of Dietary Fiber......Page 337
   References......Page 338
Part II......Page 342
   16.1 Bioassays......Page 344
   16.3 Analytical Approach......Page 345
   16.4 Preparation of Sample Extracts for Analysis......Page 346
    16.5.1 Measurement Value and Uncertainty......Page 347
    16.5.3 Food Reference Materials......Page 349
    16.5.4 Method Validation......Page 351
   References......Page 353
   17.1 Vitamin B1......Page 354
   17.2 Vitamin B2......Page 355
   17.3 Niacin......Page 356
   17.4 Vitamin B6......Page 359
   17.6 Biotin......Page 361
   17.7 Folate......Page 362
   17.8 Vitamin B12......Page 364
   17.9 Vitamin C......Page 365
   References......Page 366
    18.2.1 Turbidimetric Methods......Page 372
    18.2.2 Methods Based on the Measurement of Metabolic Carbon Dioxide......Page 374
    18.3.1 Summary......Page 375
    18.3.2 Laboratory Facilities and Cleaning of Glassware......Page 376
    18.3.4 General Assay Procedure......Page 377
   18.4 Turbidimetric Method Using Microtiter Plates......Page 383
    18.5.1 Vitamin B1......Page 384
    18.5.2 Vitamin B2......Page 385
    18.5.3 Niacin......Page 387
    18.5.4 Vitamin B6......Page 389
    18.5.5 Pantothenic Acid......Page 392
    18.5.7 Folate......Page 393
    18.5.8 Vitamin B12......Page 394
   References......Page 396
   19.1 AOAC Titrimetric Method for Vitamin C......Page 402
   19.2 Direct Spectrophotometric Determination of Vitamin C......Page 405
    19.3.1 Determination of Niacin by the Ko¨nig Reaction (AOAC Method)......Page 406
    19.3.2 Colorimetric Methods for Vitamin C......Page 407
    19.4.2 Riboflavin (AOAC Method)......Page 408
    19.4.3 Vitamin B6......Page 409
    19.4.4 Vitamin C (AOAC Method)......Page 410
    19.5.1 Nicotinic Acid......Page 411
    19.5.2 Ascorbic Acid......Page 412
    19.6.2 Flow-Injection Analysis......Page 413
    19.6.3 Applications to Food Analysis......Page 414
    19.7.2 Column Technology......Page 418
    19.7.4 Derivatization Techniques......Page 419
    19.7.6 Applications to Food Analysis......Page 420
    19.8.1 Principle......Page 423
    19.8.2 Instrumentation......Page 424
    19.8.3 Columns......Page 426
    19.9.1 Principle......Page 427
    19.9.3 Micellar Electrokinetic Capillary Chromatography......Page 429
    19.9.4 Operational Aspects......Page 430
    19.9.5 Applications to Food Analysis......Page 432
   References......Page 442
    20.2.1 Alkaline Hydrolysis (Saponification)......Page 452
    20.2.3 Enzymatic Hydrolysis......Page 457
    20.2.4 Direct Solvent Extraction......Page 458
    20.2.5 Matrix Solid-Phase Dispersion......Page 462
    20.2.6 Supercritical Fluid Extraction......Page 463
   20.3 Cleanup Procedures......Page 468
    20.3.2 Open-Column Chromatography......Page 469
    20.3.3 Solid-Phase Extraction......Page 470
    20.4.1 Principle......Page 472
    20.4.2 Explanations of Chromatographic Terms......Page 473
    20.4.3 The Column......Page 475
    20.4.4 Chromatographic Modes......Page 477
    20.4.5 Detection Systems......Page 486
    20.5.1 Vitamin A......Page 490
    20.5.2 Provitamin A Carotenoids......Page 502
    20.5.3 Vitamin D......Page 522
    20.5.4 Vitamin E......Page 538
    20.5.5 Vitamin K......Page 560
    20.5.6 Simultaneous Determination of Two or Three Vitamins......Page 579
   References......Page 600
    21.1.2 Chromatographic Modes......Page 618
    21.1.3 Derivatization......Page 624
    21.2.1 Thiamin......Page 625
    21.2.2 Vitamin B2......Page 631
    21.2.3 Niacin......Page 645
    21.2.4 Vitamin B6......Page 657
    21.2.5 Pantothenic Acid......Page 671
    21.2.6 Biotin......Page 678
    21.2.7 Folate......Page 679
    21.2.8 Vitamin B12......Page 709
    21.2.9 Vitamin C......Page 710
    21.2.10 Multiple Vitamin Analyses......Page 734
   References......Page 753
    22.2.1 The Immunological Reaction......Page 768
    22.2.2 Radioimmunoassay......Page 770
    22.2.3 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay......Page 771
    22.3.1 Radiolabeled Protein-Binding Assays......Page 774
    22.3.2 Enzyme-Labeled Protein-Binding Assays......Page 780
    22.4.1 Principle......Page 782
    22.4.2 Biosensor-Based Immunoassay for Supplemental Biotin and Folate......Page 783
    22.4.3 Biosensor-Based Protein-Binding Assay for Supplemental and Endogenous Vitamin B12......Page 784
   References......Page 785
   23.1 Microbiological Assays......Page 790
    23.2.1 Introduction......Page 791
    23.2.2 Fat-Soluble Vitamins......Page 792
    23.2.3 Water-Soluble Vitamins......Page 794
   23.4 Capillary Electrophoresis......Page 797
   23.6 Biospecific Methods......Page 798
    23.7.2 Water-Soluble Vitamins......Page 800
   References......Page 803
Index......Page 810
Back cover......Page 820