Visible Light Communications: Theoretical and Practical Foundations

1 Introduction
	1.1 Historical Background and Scope
	1.2 Motivations for Using Visible Light Communication
	1.3 Applications of Visible Light Communication
	1.4 Smart Lighting and VLC Consumer Products
	1.5 Chapter Summary
	1.6 Outline
	Problems
	References
2 Fundamentals of Illumination Engineering
	2.1 Light Spectrum
	2.2 Color Mixing
	2.3 CIE, RGB, and HSV Color Spaces
		2.3.1 CIE 1931 XYZ Color Space
		2.3.2 RGB Color Space
		2.3.3 HSV Color Space
	2.4 Color Quality
	2.5 Candela vs. Lumen vs. Lux
	2.6 Dimming
	2.7 Flicker
	2.8 Human Centric Lighting
	2.9 Chapter Summary
	Problems
	References
3 VLC and IR/UV Channel Modeling
	3.1 Lambertian and Generalized Lambertian Sources
	3.2 Propagation in Free-Space
	3.3 Indoor Propagation
	3.4 Propagation in Sea Water
	3.5 Infrared and Ultraviolet Channel Modeling
	3.6 Equivalent Discrete-Time Electrical Channel Model
	3.7 Signal-to-Noise Ratio
	3.8 Chapter Summary
	Problems
	References
4 Modulation Schemes for Optical Wireless Communications
	4.1 Intensity Modulation and Direct Detection (IM/DD)
	4.2 Constraints and Performance Criteria
	4.3 Single-Carrier Modulation (SCM)
		4.3.1 On-Off Keying (OOK)
		4.3.2 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), PAM and QAM
		4.3.3 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
		4.3.4 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
		4.3.5 Variable Pulse Position Modulation (VPPM)
		4.3.6 Carrierless Amplitude and Phase Modulation (CAP)
	4.4 Color-Domain Modulation
		4.4.1 Color Shift Keying (CSK)
		4.4.2 Digital Color Shift Keying (DCSK)
		4.4.3 Color Intensity Modulation (CIM)
		4.4.4 Metameric Modulation (MM)
		4.4.5 Deep-Learning-Based Multicolor Transceiver Design
	4.5 Multi-Carrier Modulation (MCM)
		4.5.1 Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
		4.5.2 Unipolar OFDM Versions: DMT, DCO-OFDM, PAM-DMT, ACO-OFDM, Flip-OFDM, U-OFDM
		4.5.3 Spectrally-Enhanced Unipolar OFDM: SEE-OFDM, LACO-OFDM, eACO- OFDM, eU-OFDM, GREENER-OFDM, ePAM-DMT
		4.5.4 Hybrid Schemes: SO-OFDM, RPO-OFDM, ADO-OFDM, HACO-OFDM, P-OFDM, ASCO-OFDM
		4.5.5 Carrierless OFDM (cOFDM)
		4.5.6 Non-DFT-Based Multi-Carrier Modulation: DHT, WPDM, HCM
	4.6 Code-Division Multiplexing (CDM)
	4.7 Superposition Modulation (SM)
	4.8 Camera-Based Communication
		4.8.1 Global-Shutter Sampling
		4.8.2 Rolling-Shutter Sampling
		4.8.3 Region-of-Interest Signaling
		4.8.4 Hybrid Camera-Based Photodetector-Based Systems
	4.9 Chapter Summary
	Problems
	References
5 Optical Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) Techniques
	5.1 Basics of Optical MIMO Transmission
	5.2 Introduction to Orthogonal and Quasi-Orthogonal Space-Time Block Codes
		5.2.1 Optical Space-Time Coding with On-Off Keying
		5.2.2 Optical Space-Time Coding with Q-ary Amplitude Shift Keying
		5.2.3 Optical Space-Time Coding with Q-ary Pulse Position Modulation
	5.3 Repetition MIMO
	5.4 Spatial Multiplexing
	5.5 Spatial Modulation
	5.6 Spatial Optical OFDM
	5.7 MIMO Aspects of Superposition Modulation
	5.8 Multiuser MISO Broadcasting
	5.9 MIMO Aspects of Optical Camera Communications
	5.10 Chapter Summary
	Problems
	References
6 OWC Standardization
	6.1 IR/VLC Standards and Ongoing Standardization Efforts
	6.2 IEEE 802.15.7 VLC Standard
		6.2.1 PHY I Specifications
		6.2.2 PHY II Specifications
		6.2.3 PHY III Specifications
	6.3 Chapter Summary
	Problems
	References
7 Software-Defined Radio Concept and its Applications in OWC
	7.1 Software-Defined Radio Concept
	7.2 Adaptive Radio, Cognitive Radio, and Intelligent Radio
	7.3 Hardware-Friendly Modulation
	7.4 Hardware Platforms Suitable for Data Rates in the Mbps Range
		7.4.1 Raspberry Pi
		7.4.2 STEMlab (Red Pitaya)
		7.4.3 STM32 Microcontroller
	7.5 Hardware Platforms Suitable for Data Rates in the Gbps Range
	7.6 Chapter Summary
	Problems
	References
8 Photonic Devices and High-Speed Amplifiers
	8.1 Semiconductor-Based Light Sources
		8.1.1 III-V Semiconductor LEDs
		8.1.2 OLEDs and other LED Types
		8.1.3 Lasers
	8.2 Semiconductor-Based Photodetectors
		8.2.1 Silicon Photodiodes and Phototransistors
		8.2.2 Avalanche Photodetectors and Silicon Photomultipliers
		8.2.3 CCD and CMOS Image Sensors
	8.3 High-Speed Amplifiers
		8.3.1 Discrete Devices
		8.3.2 Operational Amplifiers
	8.4 Chapter Summary
	Problems
	References
9 Circuit Design Rules for OWC Transmitters and Receivers
	9.1 LED and Laser-Diode Drivers
		9.1.1 Drivers Suitable for Two-Level Modulation Schemes
		9.1.2 Drivers Suitable for Analog Waveforms
		9.1.3 Multistring LED Drivers
	9.2 Transimpedance Amplifiers
		9.2.1 Photovoltaic Mode vs. Photoconductive Mode
		9.2.2 Photodetector Circuit Design Wizard
	9.3 Compensation of Ambient Light
		9.3.1 Circuit Design Solutions
	9.3.2 Mechanical Constructions
	9.3.3 Smart Glass and LCD-Based Optical Filtering
	9.4 Chapter Summary
	Problems
	References
10 Selected VLC and FSO Applications
	10.1 Light Fidelity (Li-Fi)
	10.2 Optical Underwater Communication
	10.3 Free-Space Optical Ethernet
	10.4 Optical Relaying and Modulating Retroreflection
	10.5 Free-Space Optical and Hybrid Microwave/Optical Communications
	10.6 Chapter Summary
	Problems
	References
11 Optical Rangefinding and Visible Light Positioning
	11.1 Optical Rangefinding
		11.1.1 Optical Runtime Measurements
		11.1.2 Time-of-Flight Camera
		11.1.3 Triangulation
		11.1.4 Range Estimation by Stereo Vision
	11.2 Visible Light Positioning (VLP)
		11.2.1 Proximity Estimation
		11.2.2 Received Signal Strength (RSS)
		11.2.3 Fingerprinting (FP)
		11.2.4 Time-of-Arrival (ToA) Localization
		11.2.5 Time-Difference-of-Arrival (TDoA) Localization
		11.2.6 Angle-of-Arrival (AoA) Localization
		11.2.7 Image-Sensor-Based Localization
		11.2.8 Hybrid Localization
	11.3 Chapter Summary
	Problems
	References
List of Abbreviations
Subject Index