Viral, Parasitic, Bacterial, and Fungal Infections: Antimicrobial, Host Defense, and Therapeutic Strategies

Front Cover
Viral, Parasitic, Bacterial, and Fungal Infections: Antimicrobial, Host Defense, and Therapeutic Strategies
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Contributors
Preface
Part I: Introduction
	Chapter 1: Clinical applications of molecular diagnosis in infectious diseases
		Introduction
		Bacteria
			Clinical applicability
			Resistance testing
		Viruses
			Clinical applicability
			Resistance testing
			Monitoring response to treatment
		Fungi
			Clinical applicability
			Resistance testing
		Mycobacteria
			Clinical applicability
			Resistance testing
			Response to treatment
		Parasites
			Clinical applicability
			Resistance testing
			Monitoring response to treatment
		Molecular diagnostics in special circumstances
			Infection control
			Antimicrobial stewardship
			Global health
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 2: Airway mucus, infection, and therapeutic strategies
		Introduction
		The mucous layer
		Mucins
		Mucin modifications
		Cystic fibrosis
		Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
		Asthma
		COVID-19
			Respiratory pathogens and mucus
		Bacterial strategies
		Viral strategies
		Fungal strategies
		Therapies
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 3: From plants to animals: A study of phytopathogenic infections
		Introduction
		Nature and significance of identifying phytopathogens
		Phytonoses: Phytopathogenic infections jump to humans
			Bacterial infections from plants
			Viral infections from plants
			Fungal infections from plants
			Cross infections (human uveitis mycoplasma-like organisms) (MLO)
		Indoor plants cause allergies
		Prevention, treatment, and cure of phytopathogens and phytonoses
			Prevention
				Temperature, relative humidity, and soil
				Good agricultural practices (GAP)
			Treatment
				Agro-technical measures
				Chemical control
				Biological control
				Genetic engineering techniques
			Cure
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 4: Epigenetic basis of infectious diseases
		Introduction
		Epigenetic regulations
		Infection and host tissue epigenetics
			Epigenetic changes directed by virus-induced infections
				Epigentics basis of coronavirus infection
			Epigenetic changes directed by bacterial infections
			Epigenetic changes directed by (protozoa) parasites-induced infections
		Epigenetic basis of sepsis
		Therapeutic strategies targeting epigenetics for infection
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 5: Burden of infectious diseases and strategies of prevention
		Introduction
		Burden and challenges
			Influenza
			Tuberculosis
		TB and COVID
			Human immunodeficiency virus
		HIV and COVID-19
		Public health strategies to prevent spread of infectious diseases
			Immunization
				National public health countermeasures
			Surveillance
			Screening and containment
			Other social measures
		United States of America specific efforts
			Global health security strategy
			Strategic national stockpile
				International countermeasures
		Lessons learned from epidemic and pandemics
		Moving forward
		References
	Chapter 6: Primary factors that determine the severity of various infections and effective nutraceutical intervention str ...
		Introduction
			Prominent infectious disorders
		COVID 19: An overview
		Mechanism and consequences of COVID-19 viral infection
			Critical features of COVID-19 infections and therapeutic strategy
		The herpes virus
			Herpes viral activation: An opportunistic biological resident
		Candida albicans (Yeast Infections)
			Healthy diet, gut microbiome, and immune competence
			Roles of nutraceuticals and functional foods in enhancing immune competence
		Concluding remarks
		References
	Chapter 7: Infection and obesity: Two sides of the same coin
		Introduction
		Influence of obesity on infections
			Obesity, impaired immune dysfunction, and infections
				Obesity and innate immunity dysfunction
				Obesity and adaptive immunity dysfunction
			Obesity and viral infections
		Influence of infections on obesity
			Infectious microbes and obesity
				Canine distemper virus
				Borna disease virus
				Scrapie agents
				Rous-associated virus type 7
				Gut microbiota
				Herpesviridae
				Chlamydia trachomatis
				SMAM-1
				Adenovirus-36
		Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 8: Infections in liver transplantation
		Introduction
		Risk factors for infection after liver transplant
			Exposures
				Recipient-derived exposures
				Donor-derived infections
				Surgery
				Hospital and community acquired
			Net state of immunosuppression
		Infection timeline
			Early phase: 1st month after transplant
			Intermediate phase: 1-6months after transplant
			Late phase: Greater than 6 months after transplant
		Pathogen specific infections
			Bacterial infection
				Surgical site infection
				Intra-abdominal infection
				Bloodstream infection
				Pneumonia
				Drug resistant organisms
					Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
					Vancomycin resistant Enterococci (VRE)
					Extended spectrum beta-lactamase-producing (ESBL) Enterobacteriaceae
			Viral infection
				Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
				Epstein Barr virus (EBV)
				Herpes simplex virus (HSV)
				Hepatitis C virus (HCV)
			Fungal infections
				Candida
				Pneumocystis jirovecii (formerly Pneumocystis carinii)
			Parasites
				Strongyloides stercoralis
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 9: An overview of antimicrobial peptides
		Introduction
		Source, structure, properties, and functions of AMPs
		Classification of AMPs
			Classification of AMPs based on activity
				Antibacterial peptides
				Antiviral peptides
				Antifungal peptides
				Anticancer peptides
			Classification of AMPs based on amino acid-rich species
				Proline-rich peptides (PrAMPs)
				Tryptophan- and arginine-rich antimicrobial peptides
				Histidine-rich peptides
				Glycine-rich antimicrobial peptides
			Classification based on antimicrobial peptide structures
		Mechanism of action of AMPs
		Applications of antimicrobial peptides
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 10: Antimicrobial peptides: A possible strategy to combat ESKAPE pathogens
		Introduction
		Epigenetic regulation of hosts by persistent pathogens
		Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs)
		Properties of AMPs for systemic clearance of MDR pathogens
		Conclusion and future perspectives
		References
Part II: Viral infections and therapeutics
	Chapter 11: A treatise on Ebola virus
		Introduction
		Microbiology and virology of Ebola virus
		Epidemiology
		Mode of transmission
		Ebola virus disease case definition
		Clinical features of Ebola virus infection
			First initial stage
			Second stage
			Third stage
		Laboratory investigations
			There are some nonspecific laboratory findings
			Ebola-specific tests
		Prevention and treatment
			Symptomatic and supportive treatment
			Based on WHO standards, a simple guidance for symptomatic treatment of EVD [59]
			Specific treatment
			Available Ebola vaccine
		Ebola survivors
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 12: Herpes virus and its manifestations
		Introduction
		Types
		Viral structure, infection, and replication
			HHV-1 and HHV-2
				Pathophysiology
				Treatment and prevention
			HHV-3
				Pathophysiology
				Treatment and prevention
			HHV-4
				Pathophysiology
				Treatment and prevention
			HHV-5
				Pathophysiology
				Treatment and prevention
			HHV-6
				Pathophysiology
				Treatment and prevention
			HHV-7
				Pathophysiology
				Treatment and prevention
			HHV-8
				Pathophysiology
				Treatment and prevention
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 13: Swine flu - An overview
		Introduction
		Pathophysiology
		Histopathology of lung
		Structure
		Life cycle of H1N1 virus
		Immunity to influenza virus
		Diagnostic tool
		Treatment of influenza virus
		Flu vaccination
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 14: Avian influenza virus: Prevalence infection and therapy
		Introduction
		Genomic structure of virus
			Types and subtypes of avian influenza virus
		Transmission to the host
		Pathogenesis
			Pathogenesis in birds
			Pathogenesis in human
		Economic importance
		Therapeutic strategies
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 15: Mosquito defense mechanisms against medically important arboviruses: The vector-pathogen interface
		Emerging and reemerging arboviral diseases
		Antiviral strategies in mosquitoes
			Antiviral immunity
				RNA interference (RNAi) pathways
				Toll, IMD, and JAK-STAT pathways
					Toll and IMD pathways
					JAK-STAT pathway
			Symbiotic microorganisms
			Virus defenses mediated by nutrition
			Antiviral mechanism in hemolymph
			Mechanisms to prevent viral propagation in salivary gland
			The antiviral response of mosquitoes mediated by fat bodies
			Arbovirus infection restrictions by neurons
			Autophagy
		Concluding remark
		References
	Chapter 16: Influenza update
		Introduction
		Pathophysiology
		Virology
		Epidemiology and public health
		Clinical presentation
		Complications
		Differential diagnosis
		Laboratory diagnosis
		Treatment
		Prevention
		Current and future research
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 17: Measles: The road to eradication
		Introduction
		Epidemiology
		Virology and immunology
		Clinical manifestations
		Diagnosis
		Treatment
		Complications
		Prevention
		Current research and future eradication
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 18: A paradigm of ZIKA virus infection
		Introduction
		Epidemiology of ZIKV
		Virology of the ZIKV
		Life cycle of ZIKV
		Transmission of ZIKV
			Mosquito borne transmission
			Nonmosquito transmission
		Pathogenesis of ZIKV
			Mechanism of ZIKV
			Replicative cycle
			Animal studies
		Symptoms
			Complications of ZIKV disease
		Diagnosis of ZIKV
			Virus isolation
			Antigen detection
			Molecular assay
			Serological assays
			ZIKV diagnosis in endemic countries
			Diagnosis of travelers
		Treatment
		Developments in ZIKV treatment
		Prevention and management
		References
		Further reading
	Chapter 19: Viral infection and its management
		Introduction
			Entry into the host cell
			Replication of viral genetic material
			Regulation of host-cell metabolism
				Assembly of progeny virions
				Viral egress
		Breaching the first barrier: Viral entry into host cells
		Stopping viruses at the door: Viral entry as therapeutic target
		Establishing infection: Replication of viral genetic material
		Replication of DNA viruses
		Replication of RNA viruses
		Viral replication compartments
		Stopping the juggernaut: Viral replication as therapeutic target
		Viral master manipulators: Regulation of host cell metabolism
			Early/late-phase gene expression in DNA viruses
			Regulation of cellular translational control
			Evading the host innate immune system
			RNA sensors and the innate immune system
			Proxy wars: Targeting viral modulation of host cell metabolism therapeutically
		Moving out to conquer: Viral egress
		Closing the door: Targeting viral egress therapeutically
		Conclusion
		Glossary of terms
		References
	Chapter 20: Momordica charantia(bitter melon): Potent antiviral efficacy and significant benefits against herpes virus
		Introduction
		Bitter melon/Momordica charantia profile
			Origin and distribution
			Botanical description
			Cultivation and nutritional composition
			Bioactive components of M. charantia
			Significant benefit of bitter melon in viral infections
		Phytochemicals possessing antiviral activity
			Ribosomal inactivating proteins (RIPs) of bitter melon
			Momordin
			MAP30
			Momorcharin
			Alpha and beta-momorcharin (α and β MMC)
			M. charantia lectin (MCL)
			Saponins
		Bitter melon with specific antiviral activities
			Anti-HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) activity
			Anti-hepatitis B virus (HBV) activity
			Anti-influenza activity
		Potent anti-HSV (herpes simplex virus) activity
			Herpes simplex virus
			MAP 30 exhibits anti-HSV activity by specifically inhibiting replication and assembly of viral progeny
		Other therapeutic activities of bitter melon
			Antimicrobial activity and antihelminthic activity
		Conclusion
		References
Part III: COVID-19, mucormycosis, omicron, and strategic therapeutics
	Chapter 21: An overview of COVID-19: An emerging infectious disease
		Introduction
			Pathogen of pandemic potential
			Causative organism
		Origin of the virus
			Natural selection in an animal host before zoonotic transfer
			Natural selection in humans following zoonotic transfer
			Selection during the passage
		Global scenario-COVID-19
		Mode of transmission
			Contact and droplet transmission
			Airborne transmission
			Fomite transmission
			Transmission rate
			Transmission-From humans to animals
			Transmission of disease among the animals
		Risk factors for severe COVID-19 [27,28]
		Clinical features
			Complications
			Clinical manifestations in pets
		Surveillance strategies [33]
			Suspected case definition
			Probable case definition
			Confirmed case of COVID-19
			Surveillance in community
			Surveillance at the primary care level
			Hospital-based surveillance
			Sentinel site surveillance
			Closed settings
			Healthcare-associated surveillance
			Mortality surveillance
			Laboratory testing data surveillance
			Event-based surveillance (EBS)
			Telephone hotlines
			Environmental surveillance
			Serological surveillance
			Surveillance among animals
		Laboratory diagnosis of COVID-19
		Research and development of medicine and vaccine for COVID-19
			COVID-19 vaccines
			Therapeutics for COVID-19
				Ivermectin
				Hydroxychloroquine
				Lopinavir/ritonavir
				Remdesivir
				Systemic corticosteroids
		Infection prevention and control of healthcare personnel
			Infection prevention and control
			Personal protective equipment
		Preventive measures
			Nonpharmaceutical interventions (NPIs)
				Social distancing
				Closures
			Recommended steps for risk adjusted nonpharmaceutical interventions
			Other strategies
				Contact tracing
				Digital technologies
				Scale-up of testing
				Legal steps
				Ethical principles
				Home quarantine
					Definition of contact
		Preparedness of health system against COVID-19
			National legislation and financing
			IHR coordination and communication
			Zoonotic events and the human-animal interface
			National laboratory system
			Surveillance
			Human resources
			National health emergency framework
			Health service provision
			Case management and continuity of essential services
			Infection prevention and control
			Risk communication and community engagement
			Points of entry
			Medical counter measures-Logistics, procurement, and supply management
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 22: Impacts of viral pathogenesis and vaccine immunization on the host humoral immune response in SARS-CoV-2 and  ...
		Introduction
		Structural organization of the virus
		Phases of SARS-CoV-2 life cycle
			Activation of viral spike glycoprotein by host proteases
			Binding of S protein with ACE2 receptor
			Fusion of SARS-CoV-2 with host cell membrane
			Replication of SARS-CoV-2 genome
			Assembly and release of the progeny virus particles
		Immune escape of SARS-CoV-2 and variants
		Lymphopenia: Escaping T-cell immunity
		Regulation of CD8+ T cell responses in COVID-19
		Regulation of CD4+ T cell responses in COVID-19
		Regulation of T follicular helper (Tfh) cells
		B cell responses against SARS-CoV-2 variants
		Current status of the vaccine performances against emerging SARS-CoV-2 VOCs
		Vaccine-induced T-cell immunity against emerging SARS-CoV-2 VOCs
		Vaccine-induced B-cell responses against emerging SARS-CoV-2 VOCs
		Concluding remarks and future scope
		References
	Chapter 23: Gut microbiome and COVID-19
		Introduction
		Gut microbiome
			Factors modulating gut microbiome
			Probiotics
			Prebiotics
			SCFA and BCAA
				Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) and branched chain fatty acids (BCAA)
		Dysbiosis and eubiosis
			Enterotypes
		SARS-CoV-2 and the variants
			Omicron variant
		COVID-19
			Effect of COVID-19 on gut microbiome
			Gut microbiome influencing severity of COVID
			Gastrointestinal diseases, dysbiosis, and COVID-19
			Gut microbiome, COVID-19 and cytokine storm
			Gut microbiome, COVID-19, and interferon
			Gut-lung axis and COVID-19
			Obesity, dysbiosis, and COVID-19
			Probiotics in the treatment of COVID-19
			Long Covid
		Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 24: Human gut virome and COVID-19: Modulating the extent of infection
		Introduction
		Gut-virome and its composition
		Gut-virome and immune response
			Influences of eukaryotic viruses on immune responses
			Influences of bacteriophages on immune responses
				Direct influences
				Indirect influences
		SARS-CoV-2 affects gut through gut-lung axis
		SARS-CoV-2 and gut-virome
		Therapeutic treatment and gut virome
		Future prospects
		References
	Chapter 25: Unveiling the prevalence and impact of diabetes on COVID-19
		Introduction to SARS-CoV2: Molecular basis of its pathogenicity
			The Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway-antagonistic function of ACE and ACE-2 in the RAAS axis
			ACE-2 and diabetic complications: Role in diabetic cardiovascular complications and heart diseases
			Covid-19 and diabetes: Is the correlation a myth or a reality?
			Immune dysbiosis in diabetes and COVID-19
			Key cellular molecules implicated in reversing inflammatory damage
			Understanding the molecular basis of COVID-19 and hyperglycemia cross-talk
		COVID-19 therapy with and without hyperglycemia
		Implications of climate change in COVID-19 pandemic
		Concluding remarks
		References
	Chapter 26: The interrelation of obesity and COVID-19 in aging
		Introduction
		Aging, inflaging and COVID-19
		Obesity and plausibility of COVID-19
			Biological horizons
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 27: Mucormycosis: Prognosis and management
		Introduction
		History
		Types of mucormycosis
		Pathogens causing mucormycosis
		Pathogenesis
		Epidemiology
			Hematological malignancy
			Solid organ malignancies and solid organ transplantation
			Corticosteroids
			Natural disaster
			COVID-19 related
		Clinical manifestations
			Pulmonary mucormycosis
			Rhinocerebral mucormycosis
			Cutaneous mucormycosis
			Gastrointestinal mucormycosis
			Disseminated mucormycosis
			Uncommon forms of mucormycosis
		Diagnosis
			Orbit or sinus radiography
			Computed tomography (CT)
			Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
			Histopathological examination
		Treatment approaches to mucormycosis
			Reversal or prevention of underlying disease
			Surgery
			Antifungal treatment for mucormycosis
				Lipid formulations of Amphotericin B
				New triazoles
					Posaconazole
					Isavuconazole
				Combination therapy
				New antifungals against mucorales
		Conclusion
		References
		Further reading
	Chapter 28: Omicron: Mystery, history, and impact on existence
		Introduction
		Structural components
			Structure of the SARS-CoV2 S protein
			Symptoms
			Features
			Contagiousness
			Virulence
			Diagnosis
			Prevention
		Conclusion
		References
Part IV: Parasitic infections and therapeutics
	Chapter 29: Host immune responses against parasitic infection
		Introduction
		Epidemiology
		Immune response against plasmodium
		Immune response against Leishmania
		Complement system
		Immune cells for immunity against Leishmania
		Immunity against filariasis
		Immunity against helminths
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 30: Malaria: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, and therapeutics
		Introduction
		Background of the disease
		Causative agent of malaria
		Life cycle of a mosquito
			Egg
			Larva
			Pupa
			Adult
		Life cycle and taxonomic classification of Plasmodium sp.
			Systematic position [23]
			Life cycle
				Asexual cycle in human
				Sexual cycle in anopheles
		Transmission of the disease
		Types and nature of the disease
		Geographical distribution
			Risk of travelers
			Types of travelers
			Variation of malaria transmission in some areas
		Symptoms and diagnosis of malaria
			Early and late-onset symptoms of malaria
			Role of nanoparticles in disease diagnosis
		Clinical aspects
			Host-parasite interaction
				Host-parasite interaction in Plasmodium invasion stages
				Factors affecting erythrocyte invasion
			Host immunity
				Comparative analysis of parasitemia created by different Plasmodium species
				Activation of host immune responses and clearance
				Immune evasion mechanisms
				Host defense through hemoglobinopathy-associated immune mechanisms
			Role of genetics
				Role of plasmodium genetics: Antigenic variation
				Role of human genetics conferring resistance to malaria
					Hemoglobinopathies
					Mutations in erythrocyte surface antigens
					Cytoskeletal abnormalities
					Enzyme deficiencies
		Malaria risk and prevention
			Personal and unit protection
				Personal Protection
				Unit protection
			Risk of children and pregnant women
				Risk of children
				Protection of children from malaria
				Risk of pregnant females
				Risk of infants
			Chemoprophylaxis
		Treatment
			Artemisinin-based combination therapies
			Emergence of drug resistance
			Vaccines against malaria
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 31: Infection of the gastrointestinal tract: Giardiasis and amoebiasis
		Introduction
			Giardia lamblia
				Etiology and epidemiology
				Pathophysiology
				Clinical features
				Clinical investigations
				Management
			Entamoeba histolytica
				Etiology and epidemiology
				Pathophysiology
				Clinical features
				Clinical investigations
				Management
				Recent advancement
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 32: Epidemiology and management of neurocysticercosis: An update
		Introduction
		Epidemiology of neurocysticercosis
		Pathology and pathogenesis
		Diagnosis
			History and physical examination
			Classification of neurocysticercosis on basis of neuroimaging
				Inactive neurocysticercosis
				Active neurocysticercosis
				Active subarachnoid neurocysticercosis
				Other forms of cysticercosis
			Serology
		Treatment
		Socioeconomic challenges and neurocysticercosis eradication
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 33: Treatment strategies against selected common tropical parasitic diseases
		Introduction
		Chemotherapeutic agents against parasites
		Challenges to chemotherapy and evolution of treatment strategies
		Immunotherapy against parasitic diseases: An alternative approach
		Concluding remarks
		References
	Chapter 34: An overview on leishmaniasis
		Introduction
		Clinical presentation
		Visceral leishmaniasis
			Epidemiology
			Etiology
				L. donovani
				L. infantum/L. chagasi
			Pathophysiology
			Life cycle
			Pathogenesis
			Risk factors
			Immunology
			Diagnosis
			Treatment
		PKDL
			Epidemiology
			Pathogenesis and immunology
			Life cycle
			Signs and symptoms
			Diagnosis
				Leishmanin skin test
				Culture and microscopy
				rK-39 strip test
				Molecular-based diagnosis
			Treatment
				Sodium antimony gluconate
				Amphotericin B
				Miltefosine
				Combination therapy
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 35: Leishmaniasis: Biology, clinical diagnosis, and treatment
		Introduction
		The Leishmania life cycle
		Epidemiology of leishmaniasis
		Clinical leishmaniasis
			Cutaneous leishmaniasis
			Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL)
			Visceral leishmaniasis (VL)
			Leishmaniasis recidivans (LR)
			Post kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL)
		Diagnosis of leishmaniasis
		Prevention of leishmaniasis
		Treatment
			Parenteral therapy
			Oral therapy
			Local therapy
				Cryo-, heat-, and photodynamic therapy
			Secondary prophylaxis
		References
	Chapter 36: Natural products in the treatment of Leishmaniasis
		Introduction
		Taxonomy, morphology, and life cycle of leishmania
		Clinical manifestations of leishmaniasis
		Diagnosis and detection of leishmaniasis
		Current therapeutic regimen of leishmaniasis and their shortcomings
		Natural products as promising alternatives for the treatment of leishmaniasis
		Various plant-derived natural compounds and their mode of action
			Quinones
				Alkaloids
				Lignans
				Tannins
				Iridoids
				Terpenoids
				Sterols
				Oxylipin
			Flavonoids
			Chalcones
			Saponins
		Approaches to overcome multidrug resistance (MDR) by natural antileishmanial compounds
		Future perspectives and concluding remarks
		References
	Chapter 37: Immunomodulators: Progress and prospects in Leishmania infection
		Introduction
		Leishmania species parasitic to human
		Clinical classification of leishmaniasis
			Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL)
			Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL)
			Visceral leishmaniasis (VL)
		Available therapies and challenges
			Antimonials
			Amphotericin B and its liposomal formulations
			Paromomycin and miltefosine
			Pentamidine isothionate and azole medicines
		Immunomodulators as alternatives
			Checkpoint inhibitors
			Cytokines
			Agonists
			Adjuvants
		Immunomodulators in metabolic diseases
			Immunomodulatory effect of vitamin D
			Immunomodulatory role of CD38
			Intestinal IgA acts as a modulator of the gut microbiota
			Heat shock proteins as immunomodulators
		Immunomodulators in infectious diseases
			Effect of IL-12 in infectious diseases
			Role of IL-2 in HIV infection
			Pharmaco-immunomodulatory therapy in COVID-19
			Adjuvant immunomodulators as therapeutics of severe influenza
		Progress of immunomodulators in leishmaniasis
		Important immunomodulators and their role in leishmaniasis
		Future prospects
		Discussion
		References
	Chapter 38: Nanoparticle-based approach toward leishmaniasis treatment
		Introduction
		Nanoparticle-based approaches
			Polymeric nanoparticles
			Liposomes
			Solid-lipid nanoparticles
			Metallic nanoparticles
			Inorganic nanoparticles
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 39: Management of parasitic infections
		Introduction
		Management
			Protozoa
			Helminths
			Ectoparasites
		Concluding remarks
		References
Part V: Bacterial infections and therapeutics
	Chapter 40: Bacterial infections: Antimicrobial mechanism of action and bacterial resistance
		Introduction
		Methods
		Penicillin and its mechanism of action against bacteria
			Mechanism of action
		Metronidazole and its mechanism of action against bacteria
			Mechanism of action
		Quinolone and its mechanism of action against bacteria
			Mechanism of action
		Sulfonamide and its mechanism of action against bacteria
			Mechanism of action
		Bacterial resistance to antibiotics
		Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 41: Sepsis presentation and pathophysiology
		Introduction
			Epidemiology of sepsis
			Evolution in the definition of sepsis
		Etiology
			Urosepsis
			Pneumonia
			COVID-19
			Intra-abdominal infections
			Necrotizing soft tissue infections
				Pathophysiology of sepsis
				Clinical presentation, laboratory assessment, and sepsis phenotypes
		Management
			Immediate evaluation
			Septic shock management
			De-escalation of therapy
		Outcomes
		Concluding remarks
		References
	Chapter 42: Neonatal sepsis: Recent advances in pathophysiology and management
		Introduction
		Epidemiology
		Classification
			Early onset sepsis (EOS)
			Late onset sepsis (LOS)
			Neonatal immune system
			Pathophysiology
		Epigenetic variations
			Infection-induced DNA methylation
			Micro RNAs
		Genetic polymorphism
			Gene polymorphism in interleukins
			Tumor necrosis factor-Gene polymorphism
			Toll like receptors (TLR)-Gene polymorphism
		Diagnosis
			Screening tests
			Immunohematological tests
			Blood culture
			PCR-based technology
			Lumbar puncture
			Urine culture
			Radiological investigations
		Management
			Supportive
			Antimicrobial therapy
			Adjuvant therapy
			Vitamin D
			Zinc supplementation
			Outcome and prognosis
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 43: An update on tuberculosis
		Introduction
		Epidemiology and public health
		Microbiology
		Immunology
		Tests and diagnostic approach
		Clinical manifestations
		Treatment
		Current research
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 44: Nutritional status in tuberculosis: A comprehensive problem to be addressed
		Introduction
		Impact of nutritional deficiency on TB
		Impact of TB on nutritional status
		Macronutrients and micronutrients in TB
			Proteins
			Cholesterol
			Carbohydrates
			Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs)
			Vitamins
				Vitamin A
				Vitamin B1
				Vitamin E
				Vitamin B12
				Vitamin C
				Vitamin D
			Minerals
				Iron
				Copper (Cu)
				Zinc
				Selenium
				Calcium
				Magnesium
				Sodium
				Phosphorous
			Herbal supplements
				Tea
		Vegetarianism
		Way forward
		Personalized nutrition
			Nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics
			Nutriepigenomics and nutriepigenetics
			Gut microbiome
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 45: Clostridium difficile infection and gut microbiota: From fundamentals to microbiota-centered strategies
		Introduction
		Characteristic of C. difficile and C. difficile infection
			What is C. difficile
			C. difficile transmission and life cycle
			Disease pathogenesis and clinical manifestations
		Epidemiology
		Gut microbiota and the maintenance of intestinal immunometabolic homeostasis
		Targeting intestinal immunometabolic regulators under C. difficile infection that in turn functions under the gut microbial ...
			Bile acid signaling
			Endocannabinoid system
			Aryl hydrocarbon receptor
			Nuclear receptor superfamily
		Gut microbiota associated with CDI
		Microbiota-associated risk factor for CDI
		Interaction of C. difficile with gut commensals: Evidence from experimental studies
			Studies with antibiotic treatment
			Studies utilizing germ-free (GF) mice
			Studies with mono-strain interactions
			Studies with probiotic consortia
		Fecal microbiota transfer in CDI
		Evidence-based prophylaxis against CDI
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 46: Nanoparticle-based treatment of bacterial biofilms
		Introduction
		Role of antibiotics in biofilm treatment
		Nanoparticle-based approaches for treating bacterial biofilms
			Metal nanoparticles
				Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs)
				Iron nanoparticles
				Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs)
				Copper nanoparticles
				Silica nanoparticles
			Metal oxide nanoparticles
			Other nanomaterials
				Liposomes
				Chitosan nanoparticles
				PLGA nanoparticles
		Current strategies in biofilm treatment
			Sutures and wound dressings
			Oral implants
			Heart valves and pacemakers
			Catheters
			Endotracheal tubes
			Contact lenses
			Drug delivery
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 47: The NET response to biofilm infections
		Introduction
			Biofilms
			Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs)
		NETosis and the clearance of biofilms
			Chromatin
			Granular proteins
			Reactive species
			Phagocytosis
		Biofilms and the evasion of NETosis
			Matrix
			Secreted proteins
			Adaptation
		Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 48: The challenge of pulmonary Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection: How to bridge research and clinical pathology
		Introduction
		Clinical presentation and pathology
			Hospital acquired pneumonia
			Community acquired pneumonia
			Pneumonia in immunocompromised patients
			Cystic fibrosis
		Pathogenicity
			Virulence factors
				Outer membrane
				Released products and other bacterial products
				Protein secretion systems
				Iron acquisition systems
				Quorum sensing
				Biofilm formation
			Antibiotic resistance
			Host immune response alteration
		Animal models
			Rodent models
				Acute pulmonary inflammation
				Chronic pulmonary infection
				Models with immunomodulation
				Immunization models
				2-Hit sepsis model
			Non-rodent models
				Pig models
				Rabbit models
				Ferret models
				Invertebrate models
		References
	Chapter 49: Pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and treatment of leprosy
		Introduction
			Symptoms and signs of leprosy
		Etiology
		Pathogenesis
		Classification/types of leprosy
			WHO classification
			Ridley-Jopling classification
		Clinical features
			Tuberculoid (TT)
			Borderline tuberculoid (BT)
			Midborderline leprosy (BB)
			Borderline lepromatous leprosy (BL)
			Lepromatous leprosy (LL)
			Other variants
				Indeterminate leprosy
				Pure neuritic leprosy
				Histoid leprosy
		Diagnosis
			Slit skin smear
			Histopathology
				Tuberculoid end
				Lepromatous end
			Other investigations
		Management of Leprosy
			Multidrug therapy (MDT)
			Treatment of reactions
		References
	Chapter 50: Noncoding RNAs and their role in bacterial infections
		Introduction
		Types of noncoding RNAs
		Housekeeping ncRNAs
		Regulatory ncRNAs
		Role of noncoding RNAs in infections
		Conclusion
		References
Part VI: Fungal infections and therapeutics
	Chapter 51: Fungal infection: An unrecognized threat
		Introduction
		Athletes foot
		Jock itch
		Ringworm
		Yeast infection
		Fungal nail infection (onychomycosis)
		Fungal eye infections
		Blastomycosis
		Cryptococcus
		Paracoccidioidomycosis
		Coccidioidomycosis (valley fever)
		Aspergillosis
		Candida auris infection
		Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP)
		Mucormycosis
		Talaromycosis
		Sporotrichosis
		Mycetoma
		Fungal diseases and COVID-19
		Preventive approach-Host defense to fungal infection
		Immune response to fungi
		Fungal infection threats
		Drug resistance molecular mechanisms
		New antifungal strategies
		Conclusion
		References
Part VII: Other infections
	Chapter 52: Zoonosis and infectious diseases
		Introduction
		Factors influencing zoonosis
			Microbial adaptations
			Susceptibility to infection
			Human population density
			Annual seasons
			Hygiene and sanitation
			Contamination of ecosystem
			Economic development and surveillance
		Origin of COVID-19
		References
		Further reading
	Chapter 53: Prion diseases: A rare group of neurodegenerative disorders
		Introduction
		Prion disease study and its importance
		Prion diseases biology and genetics
		Human prion diseases
			Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) or classic CJD
			Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD)
			Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker (GSS) syndrome
			Fatal familial insomnia (FFI)
			Kuru
		Animal prion diseases
			Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
			Chronic wasting disease (CWD)
			Scrapie
			Feline spongiform encephalopathy (FSE)
			Transmissible mink encephalopathy (TME)
			Ungulate spongiform encephalopathy
		Recent advances in prion research
			Cerebral organoids as prion research model
			Eye as prion research model
			Transgenic mice models
		Treatment for prion diseases
			Prion disease immunotherapeutics
			Vaccine-based therapies
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 54: Diabetic foot infections: An overview of pathogenesis, microbiology, and management
		Introduction
		Pathogenesis of diabetic foot infection
		Microbiological considerations
		Severity assessment at initial evaluation
		Management of diabetic foot infection
			Diagnostic considerations
			Treatment
				Antimicrobial therapy
				Surgical treatment
			Outcomes
		Importance issues in developing countries
		Conclusion
		References
Part VIII: Therapeutic interventions and strategies
	Chapter 55: New antibiotics
		Introduction
		Drug development process
		New drug approvals
			Ceftaroline
			Fidaxomicin
			Bedaquiline
			Dalbavancin
			Tedizolid
			Oritavancin
			Ceftolozane-tazobactam
			Ceftazidime-avibactam
			Delafloxacin
			Meropenem-vaborbactam
			Plazomicin
			Eravacycline
			Omadacycline
			Imipenem-cilastatin-relebactam
			Lefamulin
			Cefiderocol
		Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 56: Vaccines: An overview
		Introduction
			What is a vaccine?
			Immune response to vaccines
			Herd immunity
		Vaccine types and examples
			Viral, bacterial, and vector-based vaccines
				Live-attenuated vaccines (Table 1)
				Inactivated vaccines (Table 1)
				Methods for developing attenuated vaccines
					Reassortant vaccines
				Vector-based vaccines
			Subunit vaccines (Table 2)
				Protein subunit vaccines
				Virus-like particles
				Polysaccharide vaccines
				Polysaccharide conjugate vaccines
				Toxoid vaccines
				Messenger RNA vaccines
		Vaccine safety
			Vaccine manufacture and development (Figs. 2 and 3)
			Postlicensing/authorization surveillance for vaccine safety
				Vaccine adverse event reporting (VAERS)
				Vaccine safety datalink (VSD)
				Clinical immunization safety assessment (CISA) project
				Postlicensure rapid immunization safety monitoring system (PRISM)
				MedWatch: Medical product safety information
				Vaccine manufacturers
				Other surveillance mechanisms or entities
			Vaccine ingredients and additives
				Adjuvants
				Stabilizers
				Preservatives
				Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
				Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
				Yeast
				Egg protein
				Lipid nanoparticles
			Vaccine licensing
			General recommendations on immunizations (ACIP immunization calendar)
			Pregnancy and vaccination
			Vaccination in special circumstances
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 57: Bromhexine: Into the spotlight
		Introduction
		Medicinal properties
		Bromhexine
		Bromhexine for treatment of COVID-19
		Effect of bromhexine on endocrine system
		Effect of bromhexine on lipase enzyme
		Use of bromhexine in different diseases
		Veternary use of bromhexine
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 58: Antimicrobial (viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic) mechanisms of action of boron-containing compounds
		Introduction
		Antiviral effects of boron-containing compounds
		Antibacterial effects of BCC
		Antifungal agents
		Antiprotozoal effects of BCC
		Chemical properties of some BCC proposed as antimicrobials
		Concluding remarks and future perspectives
		References
Part IX: Enhancing immune competence
	Chapter 59: Role of natural products in infectious diseases
		Introduction
		Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
			Flavonoids
			Coumarin derivatives
			Alkaloids
			Terpens
			Lignans
			Phenolics
		SARS-CoV-2
			Polyphenols
			Flavonoids
			Alkaloids
		Hepatitis
			Alkaloids
			Polyphenols
			Terpenoids
		Malaria
			Alkaloids
			Flavonoids
			Terpenes
			Xanthones
		Dengue
			Alkaloids
			Flavonoids
			Terpenes and terpinoids
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 60: Development of biodegradable vehicles as novel therapeutic intervention against multidrug-resistant bacteria
		Introduction
		Constitutional and morphological portrayals of the nano-HAP
		Assurance of hydrodynamic size and surface charge of orchestrated HAP nanoparticles (NPs)
		Functionalized HAP nanoparticles successfully overcome bacterial obstruction in E. faecalis
		HAPVANFA-specific bactericidal movement affirmed by the disc dispersion strategy
		Functionalized HAPs show great bactericidal movement
		HAP nanoparticles display great biocompatibility
		Treatment of MDR E. faecalis with HAPVANFA altogether reduces the bacterial cells reasonability
		Systems behind the bactericidal action of functionalized HAP
			Functionalized HAP exhibits promising intracellular properties
			HAPVANFA boosts intracellular ROS generation, resulting in bacterial cell death
			Actual interactions between HAPVANFA nanoparticles and bacterial cells
		Conclusion
		References
		Further reading
	Chapter 61: Heterocyclic compounds as antimicrobial agents
		Introduction
		Heterocyclic compounds with antimicrobial activities
			Antiviral compounds
			Antifungal compounds
			Antiparasitic compounds
				Compounds with antimalarial activity
				Compounds with antileishmanial activity
				Compounds with antitrypanosomal activity
				Compounds with anthelmintic activity
			Antibacterial compounds
		Heterocyclic antimicrobials in clinical trials
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 62: Potential role of healthy microbiome in metabolic syndrome and immune competence
		Introduction
		Anatomical areas of microbiome association
			Lungs
			Gut
		Factors influencing the human microbiota
			Influence of food/diet
			Influence of drugs
			Influence of human lifestyle
		The evolution of the intestinal microbiota through aging
		The human microbiome in health sustenance
		The human microbiome and disease
			Metabolic syndrome
			Obesity
			Cardiovascular health problem
		Restoring a balanced microbiome through diet and lifestyle
		Concluding remarks
		References
	Chapter 63: Role of nutrients in combating infection
		Introduction: Underpinning nutrition
			Infectious disease and nutritional status
			Malnutrition and interface with immune response
		Type of infectious diseases and influence of nutrition
			Bacterial infection and nutrition
			Viral infection and nutrition
			Parasitic infection and nutrition
		Nutritional issues during major infections: Case studies
			Nutrition and diarrhoeal disease
			Nutrition and malaria
			Nutrition and soil transmitted helminths (STH)
			Nutrition and HIV and tuberculosis
		Energy
		Protein
		Fat
		Micronutrients
			Nutrition and COVID-19
		Drug-nutrition interaction during infectious disease
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 64: The relevance of electrolyzed water to infectious and chronic diseases
		Introduction of electrolyzed water
		History and development of electrolyzed water
		The generation instrument of electrolyzed water
		Acid electrolyzed water (AEW)
		Weak acid electrolyzed water (WAEW)
		Basic electrolyzed water (BEW)
		Neutral electrolyzed water (NEW)
		Factors affecting the antimicrobial properties of electrolyzed water
		Mechanism and disincentive effect of electrolyzed water
		Antimicrobial activity of electrolyzed water
			Antimicrobial effect of acid electrolyzed water
			Antimicrobial effect of weak acid electrolyzed water
			Antimicrobial effect of basic electrolyzed water
			Antimicrobial effect of neutral electrolyzed water
		Combination of electrolyzed water and various preservation technologies
			Organic acids
			Ultrasound
			Thermal processing
			UVC light-emitting diodes (UVC-LED)
		Antifungal effect of electrolyzed water
			Antifungal mechanism of electrolyzed water
			Antifungal effect of acid electrolyzed water
			Antifungal effect of weak acid electrolyzed water
			Antifungal effect of neutral electrolyzed water
			Antifungal effect of basic electrolyzed water
		Antivirus effect of electrolyzed water
			Inhibition of avian influenza virus by electrolyzed water
			Inhibition of enteric viruses by electrolyzed water
		Potential of electrolyzed water on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)
		Potential of electrolyzed water for health promotion
		Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)
			Animal trial of basic electrolyzed water against diabetes
			Clinical trial of basic electrolyzed water against diabetes
		Wound healing
			The effect of acid electrolyzed water on wound healing
			The effect of weak acid electrolyzed water on wound healing
		Antiobesity
			The effect of acid electrolyzed water on antiobesity
			The effect of basic electrolyzed water on antiobesity
		The effects of electrolyzed water on the gut microbiota
		Antitumor
		Conclusions and perspective
		References
		Further reading
	Chapter 65: Probiotics and immunity: An overview
		Introduction
		Role of probiotics in gut dysbiosis
		Antimicrobials and probiotics
			Probiotics and bacteria
			Probiotics and viruses
			Probiotics and respiratory viral infections
			Probiotics and gastrointestinal virus infections
			Probiotics and other viral diseases
				Mechanisms of action
		Probiotics in cancer immunotherapy
		Probiotics in autoimmune disorders
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 66: Mechanisms of gastrointestinal pathogenesis and landscape of intestinal immunity
		Introduction
		Mechanism of gastrointestinal pathogenesis
		Escherichia coli infection
		Enteropathogenic E. coli
		Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli
		Enterotoxic E. coli
		Enteroinvasive E. coli
		Enteroaggregative E. coli
		Diffusely adherent E. coli
		Adherent invasive E. coli
		Shiga toxin producing enteroaggregative E. coli
		Shigella spp.
		Salmonella spp.
		Yersinia spp.
		Vibrio cholerae
		Campylobacter spp.
		Enterococcal infection
		Helicobacter pylori
		Entamoeba histolytica
		Giardia duodenalis/Giardia lamblia
		Cryptosporidium spp.
		Helminth infection
		Intestinal immune response against pathogenesis
		Barrier effects of the gut
		Role of gut epithelial cells in immune response
		Role of gut-associated lymphoid tissue
		Effect of antigen uptake and immune response
		Role of secretory IgA
		Role of functional foods on immune-boosting activity
		Concluding remarks
		References
Commentary: A treatise on diverse pathogenic infections and potential therapeutics
	Introduction
	Factors that affect changes in life expectancy
	The paradigm shift in food preparation
	Modernization and chronic degenerative diseases
	Future perspectives and prospects
	Therapeutic perspectives
	Boosting immune competence
	Momordica charantia (bitter melon)
	Herpes viruses and L-lysine
	Concluding remarks
	References
Index
Back Cover