Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries

Valve-regulated Lead--Acid Batteries......Page 3
Valve-regulated Lead--Acid Batteries......Page 5
Preface......Page 7
List of Contributors......Page 9
Contents......Page 11
Abbreviations, Symbols and Units Used Repeatedly in Text......Page 21
Lead--Acid Batteries --- A Key Technology for Energy Sustainability......Page 29
The Lead--Acid Battery......Page 30
The Valve-regulated Battery......Page 35
Heat generation......Page 38
Heat dissipation......Page 39
The Challenges Ahead......Page 40
References......Page 42
Pure-lead Positive Grids......Page 43
Lead--Calcium Alloys......Page 44
Tin Additions to Pure Lead and Lead--Calcium Alloys......Page 48
Grain structure......Page 49
Mechanical properties of cast lead–calcium–tin alloys......Page 50
Aluminium addition......Page 52
Tin effects on conductivity of battery grids......Page 53
References......Page 60
Manufacture of lead--acid battery plates......Page 65
Survey of soaking and formation phenomena......Page 68
Filling VRLA cells with H2SO4 solution......Page 70
Chemical zonal processes during soaking......Page 72
Soaking of 3BS-cured pastes......Page 74
Soaking of 4BS-cured pastes......Page 80
Thermodynamics of formation processes......Page 82
Reactions during formation of PAM from 3BS-cured pastes......Page 83
Zonal processes during formation of PAM from 3BS-cured pastes......Page 87
beta-PbO2:alpha-PbO2 ratio and its effect on capacity of positive plates......Page 90
Structure of PAM......Page 92
Gel--crystal forms of PbO2 particles......Page 94
Mechanism of formation of PbO2 particles......Page 98
Formation of pore system in PAM and its functions......Page 99
Influence of basic lead sulfates on cycle-life of positive plates......Page 104
Formation of plates prepared with 4BS-cured pastes......Page 107
Influence of current-collector surface on formation of PbSO4 crystals at grid--PAM interface......Page 111
Thermodynamics of formation processes......Page 113
Reactions during formation of negative plate......Page 114
Zonal processes......Page 116
Structure of negative active mass......Page 119
Evolution of pore structure of plate during formation......Page 122
Effect of expanders on NAM......Page 124
Effect of expander structure on battery performance......Page 127
Stages of formation of positive and negative plates......Page 128
General current (voltage) algorithm for formation of positive plates......Page 131
Conclusions......Page 134
References......Page 135
Modelling the Effects of Additives......Page 137
Hollow glass microspheres......Page 139
Carboxymethyl cellulose......Page 140
Designer additives......Page 141
Conductive Additives......Page 142
Barium plumbate......Page 143
Titanium oxide......Page 146
Conductive polymers......Page 147
Lead-coated glass wire......Page 148
Carbon......Page 149
Lead dioxide......Page 151
Sulfate salts......Page 152
Phosphates......Page 155
Bismuth......Page 158
Conclusions......Page 159
References......Page 160
Introduction......Page 163
Basic Electrochemical Characteristics......Page 164
Negative-plate Additives......Page 170
Carbon......Page 172
Barium sulfate......Page 174
Organic additives......Page 175
Charging Influences......Page 182
Use of Internal Catalysts......Page 185
Summary......Page 187
References......Page 188
Introduction......Page 191
Wetting behaviour of AGM materials......Page 192
Physical properties of AGM materials......Page 199
Gel Batteries......Page 201
Compression characteristics......Page 202
Oxygen cycle and recombination efficiency......Page 204
Stratification and drainage......Page 206
Future Developments......Page 207
References......Page 208
Absorptive glass mat (AGM) separators......Page 211
Separators for gel batteries......Page 213
Development Trends for VRLA Battery Separators......Page 214
Modified AGM......Page 215
Alternative separators......Page 223
References......Page 231
Introduction......Page 235
Tasks of Battery Management Systems......Page 236
Designs of Battery Management System......Page 237
Battery Data Acquisition......Page 238
Determination of Battery State......Page 240
Battery state-of-charge......Page 241
Battery state-of-health......Page 253
Control of discharge......Page 257
Multiple battery systems......Page 259
Air systems......Page 261
Liquid systems......Page 262
Electrical systems......Page 263
Passive cooling systems and isolation......Page 264
Storage of Historical Battery Data......Page 265
System Communications......Page 266
References......Page 267
Introduction......Page 269
Basic charging — chemistry/secondary reactions......Page 270
Traditional charging methods......Page 273
The oxygen cycle and saturation effects......Page 282
Gas transport and oxygen cycle......Page 285
Overcharge processes......Page 287
Float charging......Page 290
Cyclic charging......Page 295
Fast charging......Page 299
Charge-termination strategies......Page 300
Failure modes attributable to charging......Page 302
Optimized approaches to float charging......Page 304
Optimized approaches to cyclic charging......Page 307
Partial-state-of-charge cycling — an evolving algorithm......Page 313
Summary and Conclusions......Page 316
References......Page 319
A Historical Perspective......Page 323
Energy-Storage Technologies......Page 325
Supercapacitors......Page 329
Energy-storage Applications......Page 330
Area control and frequency responsive reserve (generation)......Page 332
Distribution facility deferral (T&D)......Page 333
Elektrizitätswerk Hammermuehle, Germany......Page 334
BEWAG AG, Berlin, Germany......Page 336
Crescent Electric Membership Corporation, Statesville, NC, USA......Page 337
Southern California Edison, Chino, CA, USA......Page 338
Johnson Controls, Inc., Milwaukee, WI, USA......Page 339
Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority......Page 340
GNB Technologies, Vernon, CA, USA......Page 341
Metlakatla, AK, USA......Page 342
Herne and Bochold, Germany......Page 343
PQ2000......Page 344
Power Conversion......Page 345
Basic concepts......Page 346
Performance issues......Page 349
Cost Considerations......Page 350
Concluding Remarks......Page 351
References......Page 353
Introduction......Page 355
Battery selection process......Page 356
Sub-system description......Page 361
Failure modes and effects analysis......Page 363
Future electric loads......Page 365
Environmental......Page 370
Cost......Page 371
Reliability......Page 372
Maintenance-free......Page 374
VRLA in Automotive Applications......Page 375
VRLA features of interest to the automotive industry......Page 376
Continuum of electric drive......Page 379
12-V automotive......Page 381
42-V automotive......Page 391
Soft hybrids......Page 397
Parallel–series hybrids......Page 406
Electric vehicles......Page 413
References......Page 424
Introduction......Page 425
Development of vehicle electrical power systems andautomotive batteries in 20th century......Page 429
Expected changes in vehicle electrical systems in next decade and corresponding demands on automotive batteries......Page 435
Special designs/special applications......Page 437
Plate arrangement — plate stacking and spiral winding......Page 438
AGM and gel technology in vehicles......Page 441
VRLA automotive 12-V batteries for standard vehicle electrical systems......Page 442
36-V VRLA automotive batteries for 42-V PowerNets......Page 443
VRLA batteries in present vehicle electric systems......Page 445
VRLA batteries in vehicles with new components andnew operating strategies......Page 448
State-detection and management of VRLA batteries......Page 454
Outlook......Page 455
References......Page 458
Introduction......Page 463
Positive-grid corrosion......Page 464
Improvement of service-life......Page 468
Gel Batteries......Page 474
AGM Batteries......Page 479
Large Batteries for Stationary Applications......Page 483
Continuous plate-processing......Page 487
Spiral technology......Page 489
Conclusions......Page 490
References......Page 491
RAPS System Components......Page 495
Battery bank......Page 496
Photovoltaic array......Page 497
Hydro-generator......Page 498
Inverter......Page 499
RAPS System Design......Page 500
Direct-current RAPS systems......Page 501
Alternating-current RAPS systems......Page 502
Advantages......Page 504
Disadvantages......Page 505
Failure modes......Page 506
Preferred design features......Page 510
Advanced operating strategies......Page 512
References......Page 517
Introduction......Page 519
Battery collection......Page 520
Battery processing......Page 521
Pyrometallurgical methods......Page 524
Refining and alloying of lead......Page 531
Processing and recovery......Page 536
Silver......Page 537
Catalyst elements......Page 538
References......Page 539
Introduction......Page 541
Justification for Recycling......Page 542
Collection of Used VRLA Batteries......Page 543
Transport of Used VRLA Batteries......Page 545
Recycling Process......Page 547
Recycling Options......Page 550
Monitoring and Controlling Emissions......Page 554
Engineering Control in the Workplace......Page 555
Process Emission Controls......Page 556
Emission Testing and Analysis......Page 557
Biological Monitoring......Page 560
Respiratory Protection......Page 562
Location......Page 565
Containment......Page 566
Effluent Control......Page 567
Basel Convention......Page 571
Appendix 1......Page 572
References......Page 575
Future Automobile Electrical Systems......Page 577
The Challenge of High-rate Partial-state-of-charge (HRPSoC) Duty......Page 578
Mechanism of Lead Sulfate Accumulation During HRPSoC Duty......Page 582
Carbon inventory......Page 587
Grid Design for HRPSoC Duty......Page 588
The Role of Plate Thickness......Page 590
Concluding Remarks......Page 592
References......Page 593
Subject Index......Page 595