UV-Visible Spectrophotometry of Water and Wastewater

Front-matter_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-Wastewater
	UV-Visible Spectrophotometry of Water and Wastewater
Copyright_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-Wastewater
	Copyright
List-of-Contributors_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-Wastewat
	List of Contributors
Preface-to-the-Second-Edit_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-Wa
	Preface to the Second Edition
Chapter-1---The-Basis-for-Good-Spectropho_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-
	1 The Basis for Good Spectrophotometric UV–Visible Measurements
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Interaction of Light With Matter
			1.2.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
			1.2.2 The Origin of Spectra, Absorption of Radiation by Atoms, Ions and Molecules
				1.2.2.1 Fundamental Processes
				1.2.2.2 Optical Processes in Spectrophotometry
				1.2.2.3 Chromophores
			1.2.3 Quantitative Laws of the Attenuation of Light
			1.2.4 Presentation of Spectral Data
			1.2.5 Nomenclature
		1.3 Factors Affecting the Quality of Spectral Data
			1.3.1 Good Spectroscopic Practice
			1.3.2 Instrumental Performance Criteria
			1.3.3 Use of Certified Reference Materials
			1.3.4 Procedures and Best Practices for Assuring Spectrophotometer Performance
				1.3.4.1 Wavelength Accuracy and Reproducibility
				1.3.4.2 Absorbance, Accuracy and Reproducibility
				1.3.4.3 Stray-Light
				1.3.4.4 Resolution
				1.3.4.5 Optimal Spectrophotometric Range
		1.4 Sample Presentation
			1.4.1 Cuvettes
			1.4.2 Cleaning Procedures
		1.5 Factors Influencing Spectral Characteristics
			1.5.1 Sample Handing and Storage
			1.5.2 Turbidity
			1.5.3 Solvent Quality and Polarity
			1.5.4 pH
			1.5.5 Ionic Strength
			1.5.6 Temperature
			1.5.7 Data Treatment
				1.5.7.1 Averaging and Smoothing
				1.5.7.2 Derivatives
				1.5.7.3 Spectral Correction
		1.6 Data Integrity and Security
		References
		Further Reading
Chapter-2---From-Spectra-to-Qualitative_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of
	2 From Spectra to Qualitative and Quantitative Results
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Basic Handling of UV Spectra
			2.2.1 One Spectrum Transformation
				2.2.1.1 Coloured Scale
				2.2.1.2 Derivative Spectra
				2.2.1.3 Shape Factor
				2.2.1.4 Smoothing
			2.2.2 Two-Spectra Comparison
				2.2.2.1 Differential Spectrum
				2.2.2.2 Direct Comparison
				2.2.2.3 Normalisation
			2.2.3 Evolution Study from a Spectra Set
				2.2.3.1 Isosbestic Points
				2.2.3.2 Hidden Isosbestic Points
				2.2.3.3 Application: Variability Estimation
		2.3 Concentration Calculation
			2.3.1 Ideal Case: Pure Solution with No Interference
				2.3.1.1 Simple Absorptiometry for One Analyte
				2.3.1.2 Two Analytes
				2.3.1.3 Multicomponent Method by Multilinear Regression (MLR)
			2.3.2 Real Samples: Compensation of Interferences
				2.3.2.1 Two Wavelengths Approach
				2.3.2.2 Spectra Slopes
				2.3.2.3 Derivative Methods
				2.3.2.4 Polynomial Compensation of Interferences
				2.3.2.5 Chemometric Analysis: PCA, PCR and PLS
				2.3.2.6 Ultra-violet spectral deconvolution (UVSD)/Semideterministic Method
			2.3.3 Real Samples: Pretreatment Steps for Improving UV Response
		2.4 Examples of Application
		Acknowledgements
		References
Chapter-3---Organic-Constit_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-W
	3 Organic Constituents
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Coloured Organic Compounds
			3.2.1 Dyes
				3.2.1.1 Azoic Dyes
				3.2.1.2 Anthraquinonic Dyes
				3.2.1.3 Other Dyes
			3.2.2 Coloured Reagents
				3.2.2.1 pH Indicators
				3.2.2.2 Redox Indicator
				3.2.2.3 Complexometry Indicators
		3.3 UV-Absorbing Organic Compounds
			3.3.1 Aldehydes and Ketones
			3.3.2 Aldehydes
				3.3.2.1 Ketones
			3.3.3 Amines
			3.3.4 Aniline
				3.3.4.1 Chloroanilines
				3.3.4.2 Toluidine and Anisidine
				3.3.4.3 Other Aromatic Amines
				3.3.4.4 Applications
			3.3.5 Benzene and Related Compounds
				3.3.5.1 BTEX
				3.3.5.2 Chlorobenzene
			3.3.6 Pesticides
				3.3.6.1 Herbicides
				3.3.6.2 Insecticides
			3.3.7 Pharmaceuticals
			3.3.8 Phenols
				3.3.8.1 Alkylphenols
				3.3.8.2 Chlorophenols
				3.3.8.3 Nitrophenols
				3.3.8.4 Polyphenols
				3.3.8.5 Phenol Index
			3.3.9 Phthalates
			3.3.10 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
				3.3.10.1 Solvent Effect
				3.3.10.2 Influence of the Number of Aromatic Rings
				3.3.10.3 Isomeric PAH UV Spectra
				3.3.10.4 Introduction of a Five-Membered Cycle in the PAH Structure
				3.3.10.5 PAH (Index)
			3.3.11 Sulphur Organic Compounds
			3.3.12 Surfactants
		3.4 Solid-Phase Extraction and UV-Visible Spectrophotometry
		3.5 Nonabsorbing Organic Compounds
			3.5.1 Carbonyl Compounds: Use of Absorbing Derivatives
			3.5.2 Aliphatic Amines and Amino Acids: Photo-Oxidation
			3.5.3 Carbohydrates: Photodegradation
		Ackowledgments
		References
		Further Reading
Chapter-4---Aggregate-Organic-Co_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-
	4 Aggregate Organic Constituents
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Dissolved Organic Matter
		4.3 Reference Methods Assistance
			4.3.1 TOC, DOC Explanation
			4.3.2 BOD Measurement
			4.3.3 COD Final Determination
		4.4 UV Estimation of TOC, DOC, COD, and BOD5
			4.4.1 UV-Spectra Exploitation From a Limited Number of Wavelengths
			4.4.2 UV-Spectra Exploitation From a Multiwavelengths Approach
			4.4.3 Validation
		4.5 UV Recovery of Organic Pollution Parameters
		References
Chapter-5---Mineral-Constit_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-W
	5 Mineral Constituents
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Inorganic Nonmetallic Constituents
			5.2.1 N Compounds
			5.2.2 General Procedure
			5.2.3 Nitrate
			5.2.4 Nitrite
			5.2.5 TKN
			5.2.6 Ammonium
			5.2.7 P Compounds
			5.2.8 General Procedure
			5.2.9 Orthophosphates
			5.2.10 Total Phosphorus
			5.2.11 S Compounds
			5.2.12 Cl Compounds
			5.2.13 Chloride
			5.2.14 Hypochlorite
			5.2.15 Organochlorine Compounds
		5.3 Metallic Constituents
			5.3.1 Chromium (Direct Measurement)
				5.3.1.1 Hexavalent Chromium
				5.3.1.2 Trivalent Chromium
			5.3.2 Metallic Constituents Determination by Complexometry
		References
Chapter-6---Physical-and-Aggregat_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water
	6 Physical and Aggregate Properties
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Colour
			6.2.1 Determination of Colour
			6.2.2 Relation Between Colour and Visible Absorbance
		6.3 Physical Diffuse Absorption
			6.3.1 Some Elements on Diffusion of Light by Particles
			6.3.2 Methods for the Study of Heterogeneous Fractions
			6.3.3 UV-Visible Responses of Mineral Suspensions
			6.3.4 UV Responses of Microorganisms
			6.3.5 UV Responses of Wastewater
		6.4 TSS Estimation
			6.4.1 Turbidimetry
			6.4.2 UV Estimation of TSS
		References
Chapter-7---Natural-Wat_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-Waste
	7 Natural Water
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Significance of UV Spectra of Natural Water
		7.3 Quality of Natural Water
			7.3.1 Water Quality Variation Along a River
			7.3.2 Rain Influence on River Water Quality
			7.3.3 Wetland Water Quality
			7.3.4 Lakes Water Quality
			7.3.5 Groundwater Quality
		7.4 Recent Advances in Freshwater Quality UV Monitoring
			7.4.1 About Isosbestic Point(s)
			7.4.2 Relation Between Parameters (DOC/NO3)
			7.4.3 Second Derivative Renewal
			7.4.4 High-Frequency Monitoring
		7.5 Point Source and Accidental Discharge
			7.5.1 Discharge in River
			7.5.2 Discharge in Sea
			7.5.3 Accidental Discharge
		Acknowledgments
		References
Chapter-8---Drinking-Wat_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-Wast
	8 Drinking Water
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 From Resources to Tap Water
			8.2.1 Baseline Conditions
			8.2.2 Rainfalls Conditions
		8.3 Production of Tap Water in a Large Treatment Plant
			8.3.1 Routine Monitoring
		8.4 Early Warning Systems
		8.5 Disinfection by-Products
		8.6 Bottled Drinking Waters
			8.6.1 Spring Water
			8.6.2 Mineral Water
			8.6.3 Other Bottled Waters
		References
Chapter-9---Urban-Wastewa_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-Was
	9 Urban Wastewater
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Sewers
			9.2.1 Fresh Domestic Effluent
			9.2.2 Variation of Quality According to Time
			9.2.3 Evolution Along the Sewer
			9.2.4 Effect of Rain
		9.3 Synthesis and Other Applications
		9.4 Treatment Processes
			9.4.1 Primary Settling Assistance
			9.4.2 Physico-Chemical Treatment Assistance
			9.4.3 Jar Test
			9.4.4 Problem of Sample Aging
			9.4.5 Biological Processes
			9.4.6 Complementary Technique: Membrane Filtration and Activated Carbon
		9.5 Applications
			9.5.1 Fixed Biomass Treatment Plant
			9.5.2 Extensive Process
			9.5.3 Ozone Treatment for Treated Effluent
		9.6 Classification of Wastewater
			9.6.1 Typology of Urban Wastewater from UV Spectra Shape
			9.6.2 Automatic Classification of Water and Wastewater
		Acknowledgments
		References
Chapter-10---Industrial-Wast_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-
	10 Industrial Wastewater
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Wastewater Characteristics
			10.2.1 Generalities
			10.2.2 Influence of Industry Nature
			10.2.3 Variability of Industrial Wastewater Quality [3]
			10.2.4 Quantitative Estimation
		10.3 Treatment Processes
			10.3.1 Physico-chemical Processes
			10.3.2 Biological Processes
			10.3.3 Hyphenated Processes
		10.4 Waste Management
			10.4.1 Sampling Assistance
			10.4.2 Treatability Tests Assistance
			10.4.3 Spills Detection
			10.4.4 Shock Loading Management
			10.4.5 External Waste Management
		10.5 Environmental Impact
			10.5.1 Discharge
			10.5.2 Groundwater Survey
		Acknowledgments
		References
Chapter-11---Leachates-and-Organic-E_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Wa
	11 Leachates and Organic Extracts From Solids
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Landfill Leachates
			11.2.1 Leachate Characterisation
				11.2.1.1 Direct Examination of UV Spectra
				11.2.1.2 pH Effect
			11.2.2 Leachate Treatment
				11.2.2.1 Coagulation–Flocculation With FeCl3
				11.2.2.2 Photo-Oxidation
		11.3 Polluted Soils
			11.3.1 Polluted Soils Characterisation
				11.3.1.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
				11.3.1.2 Petroleum Hydrocarbons
			11.3.2 Treatment of Polluted Soils
				11.3.2.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
				11.3.2.2 Petroleum Hydrocarbons
		11.4 Solid Wastes Treatment by Composting
			11.4.1 Characterisation of Solid Wastes
			11.4.2 Composting of Solid Wastes
		11.5 Soils, Sediments, and Wetlands
			11.5.1 Soils
			11.5.2 Sediments
			11.5.3 Wetlands
		References
		Further Reading
Chapter-12---UV-Spectra-Lib_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-W
	12 UV Spectra Library
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Spectra Acquisition
		12.3 Spectra of Compounds
			12.3.1 Acids and Salts
				12.3.1.1 Acetic Acid
				12.3.1.2 Butyric Acid
				12.3.1.3 EDTA
				12.3.1.4 Formic Acid
				12.3.1.5 Oxalic Acid
				12.3.1.6 Propionic Acid
				12.3.1.7 Sodium Salicylate
				12.3.1.8 Potassium Sodium Tartrate
			12.3.2 Aldehydes and Ketones
				12.3.2.1 Acetaldehyde
				12.3.2.2 Acetone
				12.3.2.3 Benzaldehyde
				12.3.2.4 2-Butanone
				12.3.2.5 Butyraldéhyde
				12.3.2.6 Diisobutylketone
				12.3.2.7 Formaldehyde
				12.3.2.8 Isobutyl Methyl Ketone
			12.3.3 Amines and Related Compounds
				12.3.3.1 Aniline
				12.3.3.2 p-Anisidine
				12.3.3.3 2-Chloroaniline
				12.3.3.4 4-Chloroaniline
				12.3.3.5 2-Chloro-4-Methylaniline
				12.3.3.6 3,4-Dichloroaniline
				12.3.3.7 Diethylamine
				12.3.3.8 Diethanolamine
				12.3.3.9 Glutamic Acid
				12.3.3.10 Glycine
				12.3.3.11 4-Nitroaniline
				12.3.3.12 m-Toluidine
				12.3.3.13 p-Toluidine
				12.3.3.14 Tyrosine
				12.3.3.15 4,4’-Diaminodiphenylmethane
			12.3.4 Benzene and Related Compounds
				12.3.4.1 Benzene
				12.3.4.2 Chlorobenzene
				12.3.4.3 Ethylbenzene
				12.3.4.4 Toluene
				12.3.4.5 m-Xylene
				12.3.4.6 o-Xylene
				12.3.4.7 p-Xylene
			12.3.5 Pesticides
				12.3.5.1 2-4-Dichlorophenoxy Acetic Acid (2-4 D)
				12.3.5.2 Alachlor
				12.3.5.3 Atrazine
				12.3.5.4 Carbaryl
				12.3.5.5 Chlorpyrifos
				12.3.5.6 Chlortoluron
				12.3.5.7 Diazinon
				12.3.5.8 Dichlorprop
				12.3.5.9 Dimethoate
				12.3.5.10 Dinoterb
				12.3.5.11 Diquat
				12.3.5.12 Diuron
				12.3.5.13 Hexazinone
				12.3.5.14 Isoproturon
				12.3.5.15 Linuron
				12.3.5.16 Malathion
				12.3.5.17 Metazachlor
				12.3.5.18 Metolachlor
				12.3.5.19 Paraquat
				12.3.5.20 Parathion
				12.3.5.21 Simazine
				12.3.5.22 Terbuthylazine
				12.3.5.23 Terbutryn
			12.3.6 Pharmaceuticals
				12.3.6.1 1,7 Ethinylestradiol
				12.3.6.2 Acetaminohen
				12.3.6.3 Atenolol
				12.3.6.4 Caffeine
				12.3.6.5 Carbamazepine
				12.3.6.6 Ciprofloxacine
				12.3.6.7 Clofibric Acid
				12.3.6.8 Diatrozoate
				12.3.6.9 Diclofenac
				12.3.6.10 Erythromycine
				12.3.6.11 Ibuprofen
				12.3.6.12 Methylparaben
				12.3.6.13 Sulfamethoxazole
				12.3.6.14 Trimethoprim
				12.3.6.15 Warfarin
			12.3.7 Phenol and Related Compounds
				12.3.7.1 Phenol
				12.3.7.2 4-Chloro-3-Methylphenol
				12.3.7.3 2-Chlorophenol
				12.3.7.4 3-Chlorophenol
				12.3.7.5 4-Chlorophenol
				12.3.7.6 m-Cresol
				12.3.7.7 o-Cresol
				12.3.7.8 p-Cresol
				12.3.7.9 4,5-Dichlorocatechol
				12.3.7.10 2,3-Dichlorophenol
				12.3.7.11 2,4-Dichlorophenol
				12.3.7.12 2,5-Dimethylphenol
				12.3.7.13 4,6-Dinitro-2-Methylphenol
				12.3.7.14 2-Nitrophenol
				12.3.7.15 3-Nitrophenol
				12.3.7.16 4-Nitrophenol
				12.3.7.17 Pentachlorophenol
				12.3.7.18 Pyrocatechol
				12.3.7.19 2-Tert-Butyl-4-Methylphenol
				12.3.7.20 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol
				12.3.7.21 2,4,6-Trimethylphenol
				12.3.7.22 Bisphenol A
			12.3.8 Phthalates
				12.3.8.1 Butyl Benzyl Phthalate
				12.3.8.2 Di-Butyl Phthalate
				12.3.8.3 Di-Ethyl Phthalate
				12.3.8.4 Potassium Hydrogen Phthalate
				12.3.8.5 DEHP
			12.3.9 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
				12.3.9.1 Acenaphthene
				12.3.9.2 Acenaphthylene
				12.3.9.3 Anthracene
				12.3.9.4 Benzo(a)anthracene
				12.3.9.5 Benzo(a)pyrene
				12.3.9.6 Benzo(b)fluoranthene
				12.3.9.7 Benzo(g,h,i)perylene
				12.3.9.8 Benzo(k)fluoranthene
				12.3.9.9 Chrysene
				12.3.9.10 Dibenz(a,h)anthracene
				12.3.9.11 Fluoranthene
				12.3.9.12 Fluorene
				12.3.9.13 Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene
				12.3.9.14 Naphthalene
				12.3.9.15 Phenanthrene
				12.3.9.16 Pyrene
			12.3.10 Surfactants
				12.3.10.1 Alkyl Diphenyloxide Disulfonate, Disodium Salt
				12.3.10.2 Dodecyl Benzene Sulfonate
				12.3.10.3 Nonyl Phenol Ethoxylate
				12.3.10.4 Octyl Phenol Ethoxylate
				12.3.10.5 Sodium-N-Methyl-N-Oleoyl-Taurate
			12.3.11 Solvents
				12.3.11.1 Acetone
				12.3.11.2 Acetonitrile
				12.3.11.3 Ethanol
				12.3.11.4 Hexane
			12.3.12 Inorganic Compounds
				12.3.12.1 Ammonium Chloride
				12.3.12.2 Hydrogen Peroxide
				12.3.12.3 Iodine
				12.3.12.4 Potassium Cyanide
				12.3.12.5 Potassium Dichromate
				12.3.12.6 Potassium Iodate
				12.3.12.7 Potassium Iodide
				12.3.12.8 Potassium Metaperiodate
				12.3.12.9 Potassium Permanganate
				12.3.12.10 Sodium Chlorate
				12.3.12.11 Sodium Chromate
				12.3.12.12 Sodium Cyanide
				12.3.12.13 Sodium Hypochlorite
				12.3.12.14 Sodium Nitrate (Low Concentration)
				12.3.12.15 Sodium Nitrate (High Concentration)
				12.3.12.16 Sodium Nitrite (Low Concentration)
				12.3.12.17 Sodium Nitrite (High Concentration)
				12.3.12.18 Sodium Tetraborate Decahydrate
		Acknowledgments
		References
Index_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-Wastewater
	Index