Urban Soils: Principles and Practice

Preface
	Notes
Photo Credits for Opening Images of Each Chapter
Acknowledgements
Contents
Chapter 1: Urban Ecosystems: Soils and the Rise and Fall of Cities
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 The Influence of Soils on Cities
	1.3 Global Trends in Urbanisation
	1.4 Human Use of Soils
	1.5 Human Impacts on Soils
	1.6 Additional Reading
	1.7 Summary
	1.8 Questions
		1.8.1 Checking your Understanding
		1.8.2 Thinking about the Issues
		1.8.3 Contemplating Urban Soils Creatively
	References
Chapter 2: Formation and Properties of Urban Soils
	2.1 Introduction to Urban Pedology and Pedogenesis
		2.1.1 State Factors and Soil Formation
		2.1.2 Soil Fluxes and Soil Formation
		2.1.3 Pedogenesis of Urban Soils
	2.2 Soil-Related Changes in Urban Geomorphology
		2.2.1 Modification of Surface Hydrology
		2.2.2 Coastal Land Reclamation
		2.2.3 Other Built-up Landforms
		2.2.4 Landforms Modified by Removal of Material
	2.3 Characteristics of Urban and Anthropogenic Soils
		2.3.1 Urban Soils with Minimal Modification
		2.3.2 Distinctive Properties of Soils in Urban Environments
		2.3.3 Coastal Reclaimed Soils
		2.3.4 Soils on Landfills
		2.3.5 Soils on Dredge Spoils and Coastal Acid Sulphate Soils
		2.3.6 Soil-Like Materials
	2.4 Archaeological Features of Urban Soils
		2.4.1 Archaeological Anthropogenic Landforms
		2.4.2 The Soil ‘Cultural Layer’
		2.4.3 Archaeological Information from Major Elements
		2.4.4 Archaeological Information from Trace Elements
		2.4.5 Archaeological Information from Other Chemical Substances
		2.4.6 Archaeological Information from Geophysical Techniques
		2.4.7 Archaeological Information from Soil Microbial Properties
	2.5 Additional Reading
	2.6 Summary
	2.7 Questions
		2.7.1 Checking Your Understanding
		2.7.2 Thinking About the Issues
		2.7.3 Contemplating Urban Soils Creatively
	References
Chapter 3: Spatial Variability and Data Analysis in Urban Soils
	3.1 Soil Variability in Urban Environments
		3.1.1 Cities and Regional Soil Variability
		3.1.2 Soil Variability at the Scale of Cities
		3.1.3 Soil Variability at the Locality or Site Scale
		3.1.4 Contamination Hotspots
		3.1.5 Soil Variability with Depth
	3.2 Measurement and Description of Soil Variability
		3.2.1 Sampling Depth
		3.2.2 Sampling Strategies and Designs for Urban Soils
			3.2.2.1 Sampling Density
			3.2.2.2 Sampling for Hotspots
	3.3 Analysis of Spatial Data
		3.3.1 Maps
		3.3.2 Spatial Autocorrelation
		3.3.3 Variograms and Kriging
	3.4 Comparison of Sampling Strata
		3.4.1 Comparing Mean or Median Values
		3.4.2 Transforming Variables
		3.4.3 Pairwise Comparisons
		3.4.4 Effect Sizes for Comparing Means
	3.5 Relationships between Variables
		3.5.1 Correlation Analysis
		3.5.2 Regression Analysis
		3.5.3 Multivariate Analysis
	3.6 Further Reading
	3.7 Summary
	3.8 Questions
		3.8.1 Checking your Understanding
		3.8.2 Thinking about the Issues
		3.8.3 Using Your Creative Brain
	References
Chapter 4: Urban Soil Functions
	4.1 Roles and Ecosystem Services of Soils in Urban Systems
	4.2 Soil Functions Related to Soil Physical Properties and Processes
		4.2.1 Soil Energy
		4.2.2 Soil Functions Related to Hydrological Properties and Processes
	4.3 Soil Functions Related to Soil Biological Properties and Processes
		4.3.1 Biological Effects on Soil Physical Properties
		4.3.2 Nutrient Cycling
		4.3.3 Soil Food Webs
	4.4 Soil Functions Related to Soil Chemical Properties and Processes
		4.4.1 Formation of Secondary Minerals and Organic Matter
		4.4.2 Cation and Anion Exchange Reactions
		4.4.3 Chemical Adsorption Reactions
		4.4.4 Precipitation and Co-precipitation
			4.4.4.1 Dependence of Precipitation on pH and Redox
			4.4.4.2 Co-precipitation
	4.5 Soil Functions Related to Human Concerns
	4.6 Summary
	4.7 Further Reading
	4.8 Questions
		4.8.1 Checking Your Understanding
		4.8.2 Thinking About the Issues
		4.8.3 Contemplating Soils Creatively
	References
Chapter 5: Urban Soil Physics
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Physical Constraints Observed in Urban Soils
		5.2.1 Surface Sealing and Subsoil Layering
		5.2.2 Soil Density and Porosity
		5.2.3 Coarse Fragments and Artefacts
		5.2.4 Soil Structure
		5.2.5 Soil Strength
		5.2.6 Soil Erosion and Erodibility
		5.2.7 Soil Temperature and Heat Fluxes
		5.2.8 Heterogeneity of Soil Physical Properties
	5.3 Effects of Urban Soil Physical Constraints on Ecosystem Functioning
		5.3.1 Effect of Impervious Surfaces
		5.3.2 Effects of Soil Density and Porosity
		5.3.3 Effects of Soil Strength
			5.3.3.1 Effects on Biological Components of Soil
			5.3.3.2 Effects on Human Construction
		5.3.4 Effects of Soil Erosion
		5.3.5 Effects of Warmer Soils
	5.4 Soil Physical Measurements
		5.4.1 Standard Soil Physical Methods
		5.4.2 Geophysical Methods
		5.4.3 Remote Sensing Methods
	5.5 Additional Reading
	5.6 Summary
	5.7 Questions
		5.7.1 Checking Your Understanding
		5.7.2 Thinking About the Issues
		5.7.3 Contemplating Soils Creatively
	References
Chapter 6: Inorganic Contaminants in Urban Soils
	6.1 Sources of Inorganic Contaminants in Urban Soils
		6.1.1 Sources of Nutrients
		6.1.2 Sources of Metals
		6.1.3 Sources of Other Contaminants
		6.1.4 Acid Sulphate Soils
			6.1.4.1 Other Acidic Urban Soils
	6.2 Controls on Contaminant Behaviour in Urban Soils
		6.2.1 Reactions Involving Soil Solid Phases
			6.2.1.1 Metals in Mineral Phases
			6.2.1.2 Metals Retained by Surface Reactions: Chemisorption, Ion Exchange
			6.2.1.3 Metals in Solution and Aqueous Speciation
		6.2.2 Concentrations of Contaminants
		6.2.3 Transport of Metals and Nutrients
		6.2.4 Time
		6.2.5 Soil Properties
			6.2.5.1 Soil pH
			6.2.5.2 Cation Exchange Capacity
			6.2.5.3 Soil Organic Matter or Organic Amendments
			6.2.5.4 Soil Redox Potential
			6.2.5.5 Soil Mineral Phases/Major Elements
	6.3 Effects of Inorganic Soil Contaminants on Ecosystem Services
		6.3.1 Nutrients
			6.3.1.1 Soil Environments
			6.3.1.2 Receiving Environments
		6.3.2 Trace Elements
			6.3.2.1 Plants
			6.3.2.2 Soil Microbiota, Meso- and Macrofauna
			6.3.2.3 Humans
	6.4 Measurements and Data
		6.4.1 Total Elemental Analyses
		6.4.2 Partial Analyses
			6.4.2.1 Partial Analyses for Metals and Metalloids
		6.4.3 Field Measurements
		6.4.4 Background Concentrations
		6.4.5 Regulatory Contamination Thresholds
		6.4.6 Distinguishing Geogenic from Anthropogenic Contamination
		6.4.7 Contamination Indices
		6.4.8 Heterogeneity of Soil Chemical Properties
	6.5 Further Reading
	6.6 Summary
	6.7 Questions
		6.7.1 Checking Your Understanding
		6.7.2 Thinking About the Topics More Deeply
		6.7.3 A Question ‘Out of Left Field’
	References
Chapter 7: Organic Contaminants in Urban Soils
	7.1 Sources of Organic Contaminants in Urban Soils
		7.1.1 Types of Organic Compounds
			7.1.1.1 Categories of Organic Contaminants Based on General Chemical Properties
	7.2 Controls on Organic Contaminant Behaviour in Urban Soils
		7.2.1 Non-polar, Non-ionic Compounds
			7.2.1.1 Adsorption of Non-polar Organics
			7.2.1.2 Volatilisation
		7.2.2 Behaviour of Polar or Ionisable Organic Compounds
		7.2.3 Adsorption of Ionisable and Polar Organics
			7.2.3.1 Cation Exchange
			7.2.3.2 Adsorption of Anionic Organics
		7.2.4 Chemical Degradation (Abiotic) of Organic Compounds
		7.2.5 Biological Degradation
		7.2.6 Transport of Organic Contaminants
	7.3 Effects of Organic Soil Contaminants on Ecosystem Services
	7.4 Measurements and Data
		7.4.1 Total and Partial Analyses
			7.4.1.1 Soil Sampling for Organic Compounds
			7.4.1.2 Extraction of Organic Compounds from Soil
			7.4.1.3 Analysis of Organic Compounds in Extracts
		7.4.2 Background Concentrations
		7.4.3 Regulatory Contamination Thresholds
		7.4.4 Contamination Indices
	7.5 Case Study: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the Pearl River Delta
		7.5.1 The Pearl River Delta
		7.5.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
		7.5.3 PAH Concentrations in Soils of the Pearl River Delta
		7.5.4 Fractionation of Individual PAHs
		7.5.5 Sources of PAH Pollution in the Pearl River Delta
		7.5.6 Controls on PAH Concentrations and Fractionation
		7.5.7 Fluxes of PAHs to and from Soils in the Pearl River Delta
		7.5.8 Other Issues for PAHs in the Pearl River Delta
	7.6 Summary
	7.7 Further Reading
	7.8 Questions
		7.8.1 Checking Your Understanding
		7.8.2 Thinking About the Topics More Deeply
		7.8.3 A Question ‘Out of Left Field’
	References
Chapter 8: Soil Biological Processes in Urban Soils
	8.1 Urban Soils
	8.2 Ecosystem Services Provided by Urban Soils
	8.3 Types of Urban Soil Environments and the Habitat they Provide
		8.3.1 Grasslands (Parks, Gardens and Sports Grounds)
		8.3.2 Urban Gardens (Residential, Community and Collective Gardens)
		8.3.3 Urban Wastelands and Unoccupied Land
		8.3.4 Road Verges, Street Medians and Tree Pits
		8.3.5 Covered Soils
		8.3.6 Urban Green Infrastructure (Green Roofs, Bioswales and Other Engineered Habitats)
	8.4 Organisms Present in Urban Soils
		8.4.1 Soil Invertebrates
		8.4.2 Soil Microbiome
	8.5 Measuring Soil Organisms
		8.5.1 Measurement of Soil Fauna
		8.5.2 Measuring the Soil Microbiome
		8.5.3 Multivariate Analysis of Soil Organisms
	8.6 Relationships Between Urban Habitats and Resident Organisms
		8.6.1 Habitat Structure
		8.6.2 Soil Characteristics (pH, Nutrients, Moisture)
		8.6.3 Soil Contamination (Metals, Pesticides, PAHs)
		8.6.4 Urban Soils and Human Health
	8.7 Novel Uses/Metabolisms or Urban Soil Organisms
	8.8 Additional Reading
	8.9 Review and Study Questions
		8.9.1 Checking Your Understanding
		8.9.2 Thinking About the Issues
		8.9.3 Contemplating Urban Soil Biology More Creatively
	References
Chapter 9: Urban Soil as a Source and Sink
	9.1 Transport Mechanisms Relating to Substances in Soils
		9.1.1 Diffusion
		9.1.2 Advection (Mass Flow)
		9.1.3 Adhering
		9.1.4 Bioturbation
	9.2 Urban Soil as Source and Sink of Material
		9.2.1 Point and Diffuse Sources of Soil Contamination
		9.2.2 Dusts and Other Airborne Particulates
		9.2.3 Road Traffic
		9.2.4 Atmospheric Deposition and Emissions from Urban Soils
			9.2.4.1 Carbon Fluxes to and from Urban Soils
			9.2.4.2 Nitrogen Fluxes to and from Urban Soils
			9.2.4.3 Sulphur Fluxes to and from Urban Soils
		9.2.5 Soil as a Source of Nutrients
		9.2.6 Soil as a Source and Sink for Potentially Toxic Substances
			9.2.6.1 Potentially Toxic Elements
			9.2.6.2 Hydrocarbons
			9.2.6.3 Persistent Organic Pollutants
			9.2.6.4 Radionuclides
			9.2.6.5 Mineral Contaminants Including Asbestos
	9.3 A First Look at Risk Analysis
		9.3.1 The Conceptual Site Model Framework
		9.3.2 Risk Analysis: Dosages and Hazard Indices
		9.3.3 Soil-Based Guidelines: Threshold-Based Risk Assessment
	9.4 Further Reading
	9.5 Summary
	9.6 Questions
		9.6.1 Checking your Understanding
		9.6.2 Thinking about the Topics more Deeply
		9.6.3 Thinking Creatively about Urban Soils
	References
Chapter 10: Urban Soil and Human Health
	10.1 Urban Soils and Sustainable Development
		10.1.1 Poverty and its Relationships with Urban Soil
		10.1.2 Food Security and Its Relationships with Urban Soil
		10.1.3 Physical Health and Well-being and Urban Soils
		10.1.4 Education and Urban Soils
		10.1.5 Gender Equality and Empowerment and Urban Soils
		10.1.6 Healthy Water and Urban Soils
		10.1.7 Urban Soils and Employment
		10.1.8 Climate Change and Urban Soils
		10.1.9 Terrestrial Life and Urban Soils
	10.2 Other Human Health Issues Related to Urban Soils
		10.2.1 Urban Soil Remediation
		10.2.2 Acid Sulfate Soils and Human Health
		10.2.3 Environmental Justice Issues
		10.2.4 Case Studies of Environmental (in)Justice in Urban Soils
	10.3 Further Reading
	10.4 Summary
	10.5 Questions
		10.5.1 Checking Your Understanding
		10.5.2 Thinking About the Topics more Deeply
		10.5.3 Thinking Creatively About Urban Soils
	References
Chapter 11: Urban Soil Remediation
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Remediation Criteria
		11.2.1 Factors Affecting the Selection of Remediation Method(s)
		11.2.2 Objectives for Urban Land/Soil Remediation/Rehabilitation
	11.3 Physical Soil Remediation Methods
		11.3.1 Natural Physical Attenuation
		11.3.2 Soil Excavation and Removal
		11.3.3 Soil Containment: Covering, Surface Sealing, and Encapsulation
		11.3.4 Soil Solidification
		11.3.5 Phase Separation
	11.4 Chemical Soil Remediation Methods
		11.4.1 Abiotic Natural Attenuation
		11.4.2 Soil Amendments
		11.4.3 Soil Washing
		11.4.4 Soil Flushing (In Situ Soil Washing)
		11.4.5 Electrokinetic Migration
		11.4.6 Permeable Reactive Barriers
	11.5 Biological Soil Remediation Methods
		11.5.1 Natural Biological Attenuation
		11.5.2 In Situ Enhanced Bioremediation
		11.5.3 Bioventing and Biosparging
		11.5.4 Bioremediation Using Biopiles, Landfarming, or Bioreactors
		11.5.5 Phytoremediation
	11.6 Urban Soils as Media for Remediation of Water
		11.6.1 Constructed Wetlands
		11.6.2 Infiltration Beds
		11.6.3 WSUD (Swales, Rain Gardens, Wetlands, Green Roofs/Walls, Etc.)
	11.7 Case Studies in Brief: Effectiveness of Urban Soil Remediation
		11.7.1 Asbestos in Soil in an Urban Land Development, Canberra, Australia
		11.7.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Timber Treatment Site Soil, Florida, USA
		11.7.3 Trace Elements (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, Tl, Zn) from a Mine Tailings Spill, Guadiamar River valley, Spain
	11.8 Regulatory Frameworks for Contaminated Sites and Soil Remediation
		11.8.1 United States of America
		11.8.2 Europe
		11.8.3 Australia
	11.9 Further Reading
	11.10 Summary
	11.11 Review and Study Questions
		11.11.1 Checking Your Understanding
		11.11.2 Thinking About the Topics More Deeply
		11.11.3 Thinking About Urban Soil Remediation with Your ‘Left Brain’
	References
Chapter 12: The Future of Urban Soils
	12.1 Introduction to the Future of Urban Soils
	12.2 Climate Change Effects
	12.3 Urban Soils and Biodiversity
	12.4 Urban Agriculture and Gardening
		12.4.1 Urban Gardening for Food Production and Wellbeing
		12.4.2 Urban Forestry
		12.4.3 Manufactured Soils
	12.5 Water-Sensitive Urban Design
	12.6 Soil Contamination
		12.6.1 Ongoing and Legacy Contamination and Brownfields
		12.6.2 Emerging Contaminants
	12.7 Life Cycle Assessment of Soil Remediation
	12.8 Urban Soil and Environmental Justice
	12.9 Indigenous, Traditional, and Local Soil Knowledge
	12.10 Further Reading
	12.11 Summary
	12.12 Review and Study Questions
		12.12.1 Checking Your Understanding
		12.12.2 Thinking About the Topics More Deeply
		12.12.3 Thinking About Urban Soil Remediation with Your “Left Brain”
	References
Glossary
Index