Urban Development and the Panama Canal Zone: The Case of Fort Clayton (The Urban Book Series)

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Authors
List of Figures
List of Tables
1 Historical Background: Transformed Landscapes and the Impact of Human-Nature Interaction in the Interoceanic Region (6000 BC–1950)
	1.1 Environmental Description of the Pacific Transisthmian Region
	1.2 Background: The Cultural Landscape and Environmental Changes in the Interoceanic Region
		1.2.1 Pre-Hispanic Stage
		1.2.2 Impact of Interoceanic Transit During the Colony
		1.2.3 The Interoceanic Railway Metabolism Landscape
		1.2.4 Impact of French Canal Construction
	1.3 United States Canal Construction (1904–1914)
		1.3.1 Environmental Transformations of the US Canal Construction
	1.4 The Defenses of the Panama Canal in the Early Twentieth Century
		1.4.1 The Canal Defense Plan and Cronkhite Commission
		1.4.2 Before Clayton: Environmental Historic Approach
		1.4.3 Livestock as a Defense Strategy for the Canal and Its Impact in the Repopulation of the Forests (1916–1950)
	References
2 Fort Clayton’s Urbanism and Architecture
	2.1 Brief Background of Early Twentieth-Century Urban Planning
		2.1.1 Urban Planning, Zoning, and Racial Segregation in the Canal Zone
	2.2 Historical Stages of Urban Growth of Fort Clayton
		2.2.1 Period of Urban Military Development
		2.2.2 Stages of Suburb Expansions of Fort Clayton and Their Formal Background
	2.3 The Architecture of Fort Clayton Through the Twentieth Century
		2.3.1 Architecture from 1919 to 1922
		2.3.2 Architecture from 1923 to 1932
		2.3.3 Architecture from 1933 to 1939
		2.3.4 Architecture from 1932 to 1939
		2.3.5 Architecture from 1940 to 1943
		2.3.6 Architecture from 1948 to 1949
		2.3.7 Architecture from 1950 to 1960
		2.3.8 Architecture from 1960 to 1969
	2.4 Fort Clayton Urban Housing Final Review
	References
3 The Construction of Sanitary Urban and Anti-Mosquito Landscaping in the Canal Zone
	3.1 Miasmatic Theory, Malaria, Health, and the Conception of the Tropics
	3.2 Sanitary Approaches During the French Canal Construction
	3.3 The Hygienic City in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries in the United States
	3.4 Sanitary Situation in Panama at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century
	3.5 The Canal Zone Suburban Model and Its Sanitary Scope
	3.6 Influence of Malaria and Yellow Fever Mosquitoes’ Ecology in Building Regulations, Architecture, and Landscape
		3.6.1 Aedes Ecology Influence on Sanitary Solutions
		3.6.2 Anopheles Ecology Influence on Sanitary Solutions
	3.7 Mosquito Control Influence on the Fort Clayton Urban Landscape
	References
4 Historical, Cultural, and Urban Analysis of the Landscaping of the Canal Zone. Case of Fort Clayton
	4.1 Landscaping and the Construction of Human Habitat
	4.2 Influence of the French Canal Era on the Landscaping of the Canal Zone
	4.3 American Cultural Context in the Early Twentieth Century
		4.3.1 City Beautiful Movement, Sanitation, and the Panama Canal Zone Landscaping
		4.3.2 Balboa Landscaping
	4.4 Urban Arborization in the First Permanent Settlements of the Canal Zone
	4.5 The Conception of Balboa Landscaping and the Visual Effect of Arborization
		4.5.1 The Use of Edible Species in the Balboa Landscaping
	4.6 Planning and Management of Urban Tree Planting in the Canal Zone During First Half of Twentieth Century
	4.7 Characterization of the Urban Tree Pattern in the Military Fortifications of the Canal Zone. Case of Fort Clayton
		4.7.1 Evolution of Landscaping at Fort Clayton and the Influence of Land Use. The Importance of the Royal Palm
	4.8 Arborization Campaign Estimated to Have Occurred in 1923
	4.9 Probable Arborization Campaign of 1934
	4.10 Probable Arborization Campaign of the 1940s
	4.11 Probable Arborization Campaign of the 1950s
		4.11.1 Tree Planting Patterns Concerning Land Use and the History of Fort Clayton
	References
5 Cultural Landscapes Values
	5.1 Cultural Landscape: An Approach to Heritage
	5.2 Characterization of the Cultural Landscape
		5.2.1 Characterization of Central Fort Clayton
	5.3 Heritage Values
		5.3.1 Theoretical Background of Heritage Values
		5.3.2 Categories and Subcategories of Heritage Values
	5.4 Cultural and Natural Landscape Values Attributed by the Study
		5.4.1 What’s Original in Clayton
		5.4.2 Heritage Values of Built Elements of the Cultural Landscape
		5.4.3 Heritage Values of Natural Elements of Cultural Landscape
	5.5 Authenticity
		5.5.1 Integrity
	5.6 A Shared Heritage: The Official Assessment of the United States and Panama
	5.7 Valuation Attributed by the Population
		5.7.1 Approach to the Valuation of the Population
		5.7.2 Photo Test
		5.7.3 Photo Test Results
	5.8 Final Review
	References
6 Are Canal Zone Towns Adapted to Tropical Environments?
	6.1 North American Regional Planning and the Canal Zone
		6.1.1 Militarization of the Forests of the Canal Zone (1940–1999)
	6.2 Territorial Model of Towns in the Canal Zone and Its Environmental Effects
		6.2.1 Impact of Fort Clayton on Ecological Connectivity
	6.3 Urban Ecology and the Cycle of Matter in the Towns of the Canal Zone
		6.3.1 Cycle of Matter in the Towns of the Canal Zone
	6.4 Climate Adaptation and Urban Health Environment in the Canal Zone
		6.4.1 Urban Structure, Architecture, and Climate Adaptation
		6.4.2 Canal Zone Towns Adaptation to Tropical Insects and Its Chemical Contamination Impact
	References
7 Epilogue
	7.1 Taking Stock of Canal Zone Forest Management: Exploitation and Sanitation
	7.2 Relationship Between Villages and Forests
	7.3 The Natural and Cultural Heritage of the Villages and Forests of the Canal Zone
	References
Index