Updates on Myopia. A Clinical Perspective

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Editors
1: Introduction and Overview on Myopia: A Clinical Perspective
	1.1	 Global Epidemiology
	1.2	 Pathogenesis of Myopia
	1.3	 Key Environmental Factors on Myopia
	1.4	 Genetics of Myopia
	1.5	 Prevention of the Onset of Myopia
	1.6	 Understanding Pathologic Myopia
	1.7	 Imaging in Myopia
	1.8	 Glaucoma in Myopia
	1.9	 Management of Myopic Choroidal Neovascularization
	1.10	 Management of Myopia-Related Retinal Complications
		1.10.1	 Proposed Adjuncts to Improve Outcome of Macular Hole Surgery
	1.11	 Management and Control of Myopia in Children
	References
2: Global Epidemiology of Myopia
	2.1	 Introduction
	2.2	 Prevalence of Myopia in Children
		2.2.1	 Asian Countries
			2.2.1.1	 East Asian Countries and Singapore
			2.2.1.2	 Rest of Asian Countries
		2.2.2	 Non-Asian Countries
		2.2.3	 Urban and Rural Areas
	2.3	 Prevalence of Myopia and HM in Teenagers and Young Adults
		2.3.1	 East Asian Countries
		2.3.2	 Rest of East Asian Countries
	2.4	 Prevalence of Myopia and HM in Adults
		2.4.1	 Asian Countries
			2.4.1.1	 East Asian Countries
			2.4.1.2	 Rest of East Asian Countries
		2.4.2	 Non-Asian Countries
		2.4.3	 Generational Gap
	2.5	 The Prevalence of PM
	2.6	 Conclusion
	References
3: The Economic and Societal Impact of Myopia and High Myopia
	3.1	 Introduction
	3.2	 Economic Impact of Myopia
	3.3	 Secondary Impact of Myopia from Other Eye Diseases and Sight Loss
	3.4	 Quality of Life
	3.5	 Impact of Myopia Treatments on Quality of Life
	3.6	 Summary
	References
4: Understanding Myopia: Pathogenesis and Mechanisms
	4.1	 Emmetropization and Normal Ocular Growth in Human Eyes
	4.2	 Ocular Biometric Changes in Human Myopia
		4.2.1	 Cornea
		4.2.2	 Crystalline Lens and Anterior Chamber Depth
		4.2.3	 Vitreous Chamber and Axial Length
		4.2.4	 Choroid
		4.2.5	 Sclera
	4.3	 Visual Environment, Emmetropization, and Myopia: Evidence from Animal Models
		4.3.1	 Form-Deprivation Myopia
		4.3.2	 Lens Defocus Ametropias
		4.3.3	 Comparing Form-Deprivation and Lens Defocus
	4.4	 Other Visual Cues for Emmetropization
		4.4.1	 Retinal Physiology
		4.4.2	 Aberrations
		4.4.3	 Accommodation
		4.4.4	 Circadian Rhythms
	4.5	 Effects of Key Environmental Factors on Myopia
		4.5.1	 Near Work and Education
		4.5.2	 Urbanization
		4.5.3	 Light Exposure
	4.6	 Conclusion
	References
5: The Genetics of Myopia
	5.1	 Introduction
	5.2	 Heritability
	5.3	 Syndromic Myopia
	5.4	 Linkage Studies
	5.5	 Candidate Gene Studies
	5.6	 Genome-Wide Association Studies
	5.7	 Pathway Analysis Approaches
	5.8	 Next Generation Sequencing
	5.9	 Environmental Influences Through Genetics
	5.10	 Epigenetics
	5.11	 Implications for Clinical Management
	5.12	 Concluding Remarks
	References
6: Risk Factors for Myopia: Putting Causal Pathways into a Social Context
	6.1	 Key Issues When Studying Risk Factors for Myopia
		6.1.1	 Myopia Is Etiologically Heterogeneous
		6.1.2	 Myopia Is a Developmental Condition
		6.1.3	 Cycloplegia and Definitions of Myopia: Important Methodological Issues
		6.1.4	 Myopia: The Importance of Causal Pathways
		6.1.5	 Statistical Analysis
	6.2	 The Main Risk Factors for “School Myopia”: Education and Time Outdoors
		6.2.1	 The Search for Causal Mechanisms for Education
		6.2.2	 Protection by Time Outdoors
	6.3	 Other Possible Risk Factors for Myopia
		6.3.1	 Use of Computers and Smart Phones
		6.3.2	 Sex
		6.3.3	 Ethnicity
		6.3.4	 Parental Myopia
		6.3.5	 Intelligence
		6.3.6	 Urban/Rural Differences
		6.3.7	 Pollution
		6.3.8	 Housing
		6.3.9	 Height
		6.3.10	 Diet
		6.3.11	 Sleep
		6.3.12	 Smoking
		6.3.13	 Birth Order
		6.3.14	 Season of Birth
		6.3.15	 Allergic Conjunctivitis: Hay Fever and Kawasaki Disease
		6.3.16	 Febrile Diseases
		6.3.17	 Fertility Treatment
	6.4	 Popular Beliefs About the Causes of Myopia
	6.5	 Comparing Genetic and Environmental Effects
	6.6	 Conclusions
	References
7: Prevention of Myopia Onset
	7.1	 Introduction
	7.2	 Onset of Myopia
	7.3	 Increased Time Outdoors as an Intervention
	7.4	 Reduced Near Work Intensity as an Intervention
	7.5	 Optical Interventions
	7.6	 Eye Exercises of Acupoints
	7.7	 Future Prospects
	References
8: Clinical Management and Control of Myopia in Children
	8.1	 Introduction
	8.2	 Near Activity and Accommodation
		8.2.1	 Bifocal and Progressive Addition Spectacles
		8.2.2	 Atropine
	8.3	 Peripheral Defocus
		8.3.1	 Peripheral Myopic Defocus Glasses
		8.3.2	 Bifocal or Dual-Focus Contact Lenses
		8.3.3	 Orthokeratology
	8.4	 Time Spent Outdoors
		8.4.1	 Environmental Interventions
		8.4.2	 Higher Light Intensities and Dopamine
	8.5	 Inheritance and Genetics of Myopia
	8.6	 Application to Clinical Practice
	8.7	 Conclusion
	References
9: Understanding Pathologic Myopia
	9.1	 Introduction
	9.2	 Definition of Pathologic Myopia
	9.3	 Posterior Staphyloma
		9.3.1	 Definition of Staphyloma by Spaide (Fig. 9.1)
		9.3.2	 Detection of Posterior Staphyloma
		9.3.3	 Classification (Ohno-Matsui’s Modified Classification, Fig. 9.3)
	9.4	 Fundus Complications of Pathologic Myopia
		9.4.1	 Myopic Chorioretinal Atrophy (META-PM Study, Table 9.1)
		9.4.2	 Diffuse Chorioretinal Atrophy (Category 2)
		9.4.3	 Patchy Chorioretinal Atrophy (Category 3)
		9.4.4	 Lacquer Cracks (Plus Sign)
		9.4.5	 Myopic CNV and CNV-Related Macular Atrophy
	9.5	 Myopic Macular Retinoschisis
	9.6	 Dome-Shaped Macula (DSM)
	References
10: Imaging in Myopia
	10.1	 Introduction
	10.2	 Disease Characteristics of Myopia
	10.3	 Key Structures Altered in Myopia and Pathological Myopia
		10.3.1	 Sclera and Collagen
		10.3.2	 Choroidal Changes
		10.3.3	 Bruch’s Membrane and Retinal Pigment Epithelium Changes
	10.4	 Existing Imaging Modalities to Evaluate the Myopic Eye
		10.4.1	 Optical Coherence Tomography
		10.4.2	 Ultrasound
		10.4.3	 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
	10.5	 Challenges in Imaging of the Myopic Eye
		10.5.1	 Interaction Between Low- and High-Order Aberrations
		10.5.2	 Challenges in Imaging the Anterior Segment
		10.5.3	 Challenges in Imaging the Retina
		10.5.4	 Challenges in Imaging the Choroid and Sclera
		10.5.5	 Challenges in Imaging the Optic Nerve
	10.6	 Future Developments
	References
11: Glaucoma in High Myopia
	11.1	 Introduction
	11.2	 Anatomy of the Optic Nerve Head in High Myopia
	11.3	 Increased Prevalence of Glaucoma in High Myopia and Associated Factors
	11.4	 Potential Reasons for the Association Between Glaucoma and High Myopia
	11.5	 Intraocular Pressure and Glaucoma in High Myopia
	11.6	 Therapy of Glaucoma in High Myopia
	References
12: Clinical Management of Myopia in Adults: Treatment of Retinal Complications
	12.1	 Introduction
	12.2	 Surgical Procedures
		12.2.1	 Pars Plana Vitrectomy
			12.2.1.1	 Microincision Vitrectomy Surgery
			12.2.1.2	 Induction of Posterior Vitreous Detachment
			12.2.1.3	 Epiretinal Membrane Peeling
			12.2.1.4	 Internal Limiting Membrane Peeling
				Full-Thickness Macular Hole
				Myopic Foveoschisis
			12.2.1.5	 Gas Tamponade
		12.2.2	 Additional Measures (Adjuncts) to Improve Outcome of Macular Hole Surgery
			12.2.2.1	 Endotamponade
			12.2.2.2	 Inverted Internal Limiting Membrane Flap
			12.2.2.3	 Autologous Internal Limiting Membrane Transplantation
			12.2.2.4	 Autologous Blood
			12.2.2.5	 Lens Capsular Flap Transplantation
			12.2.2.6	 Macular Buckle
			12.2.2.7	 Autologous Neurosensory Retinal Transplantation
	12.3	 Conclusion
	References
13: Clinical Management of Myopia in Adults: Treatment of Myopic CNV
	13.1	 Disease Overview
	13.2	 Incidence and Prevalence
	13.3	 Natural History
	13.4	 Risk Factors
	13.5	 Pathogenesis
	13.6	 Diagnosis and Monitoring
	13.7	 Differential Diagnosis
		13.7.1	 Macular Hemorrhage Secondary to Lacquer Cracks (Fig. 13.2)
		13.7.2	 Inflammatory CNV
		13.7.3	 Dome-Shaped Maculopathy with Serous Detachment
	13.8	 Management
		13.8.1	 Anti-Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Drugs
	13.9	 Ranibizumab
	13.10	 Aflibercept
	13.11	 Bevacizumab
	13.12	 Conbercept
	13.13	 Factors Related to Treatment Outcomes
	13.14	 Recurrence
	13.15	 Treatment Regimen and Follow-Up
	13.16	 Long-Term Outcomes
	13.17	 Conclusions
	References
14: Optical Interventions for Myopia Control
	14.1	 Introduction
	14.2	 Spectacle Lenses
		14.2.1	 Under-Correction of Myopia
		14.2.2	 Bifocal or Multifocal Spectacles
	14.3	 Contact Lenses
		14.3.1	 Rigid Gas Permeable Contact Lenses
		14.3.2	 Orthokeratology
		14.3.3	 Soft Bifocal and Multifocal Contact Lenses
	14.4	 Others: Outdoor Activities and Violet Light Transmitting Lenses
	14.5	 Comparison of the Effectiveness on Myopia Control by Different Optical Interventions
	14.6	 Conclusions
	References
Correction to: Optical Interventions for Myopia Control
	Correction to: M. Ang, T. Y. Wong (eds.), Updates on Myopia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8491-2_14