Unpacking E-Commerce Business Models, Trends and Policies

Foreword
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
Abbreviations and Acronyms
Executive Summary
Chapter 1. Understanding e-commerce
	What is e-commerce?
		1.1. Defining e-commerce
	Measuring e-commerce
	A wide range of policy areas impact e-commerce
		Consumer policy
		Taxation
		Competition
		Cross-border trade
		Environment
	Key areas for policy action
	Notes
	References
Chapter 2. Tracking E-Commerce Trends
	Broad e-commerce trends
		B2B transactions dominate the e-commerce landscape, but B2C is on the rise
			2.1. Value of e-commerce in the US and EU28 by sector, 2016
			2.2. E-commerce intensity by sector, 2017
			2.3. Growth in EU28 e-commerce B2C- vs. B2B-intensive sectors, 2010-17
		Mobile e-commerce and alternative payment methods are increasing in importance
	E-commerce trends: A firm perspective
		2.1. Defining sellers in the e-commerce ecosystem
		Firms increasingly participate in e-commerce, with large variations across countries and by firm size
			2.4. Firm participation in e-commerce by size, 2017
			2.5. E-commerce intensity, 2017
			2.2. Comparison of e-commerce participation and turnover contribution suggests mixed business models and rising e-commerce intensity at the firm level
				2.6. Firm participation and e-commerce turnover by size class, 2008-17
			2.7. E-commerce engagement in web sales and EDI by firm size, 2010-17
			2.8. Sales channels and B2C sales by sector, 2012-17
		Factors that influence firms’ participation in e-commerce
			2.9. Obstacles to selling on the web cited by firms, 2015
			2.10. Problems that EU28 firms expect if they were to sell products online, 2015
			2.11. Difficulties that EU28 firms encountered when selling to other European countries, 2014
			2.12. Difficulties experienced when making web sales to other EU countries, 2016
	E-commerce trends: A consumer perspective
		Consumer participation is rising, but varies by age, gender, income and education
			2.13. Individuals who participated in e-commerce by age and gender, 2018
			2.14. Individuals who participated in e-commerce by household income and educational level, 2018
			2.15. Broadband access and participation in e-commerce by rural and urban areas, 2018
		What consumer are buying online is changing, with clothing, footwear and sporting goods in high demand
		Convenience, price and availability explain why many individuals participate in e-commerce, but certain impediments persist
			2.3. Tapping into new data sources: BBVA credit card data
				2.16. Domestic online credit card expenditure in Spain by product category, 2016
			2.17. Reasons for not shopping online, 2017
	Cross-border e-commerce trends
		B2C e-commerce is essential for SME exports and has spurred the rise of the Chinese market for e-commerce
			2.18. Enterprises that participated in e-commerce sales to other countries, 2016
			2.19. Enterprises that participated in e-commerce sales to other countries by sector, 2016
			2.20. Individuals who purchased online from sellers in other countries, 2018
			2.21. Products that individuals purchased online from sellers abroad, 2017
	Key areas for policy action
	Notes
	References
Chapter 3. Evolving e-commerce business models
	3.1. What is a business model?
	3.2. Data: Enabling innovation in e-commerce
	Online platform e-commerce business models
		Increased scale and scope of goods and services
			3.3. Transforming back-end operations using digital technologies
		Matching buyers and sellers
			3.4. Using big data analytics and AI to improve matching
			3.5. Pricing on online e-commerce platforms
		Approaches to increase trust
			3.6. Digital identity and its potential for e-commerce
			3.7. Disintermediating e-commerce: The potential of blockchain to enable trusted transactions
		Mechanisms to facilitate firm participation
	Subscription e-commerce business models
		Access to digital products by subscription
			3.8. Using blockchain for digital rights management
			3.9. Cloud computing underpins digital service models
		Subscription access to tangible and bundled goods and services
			3.10. Connected devices can facilitate recurring purchases of goods that require replenishment
			3.11. The last mile: Using technologies to make the delivery of tangible products more efficient
	Online-offline e-commerce business models
		3.12. Mobile technologies are helping e-commerce to flourish in brick-and-mortar stores
		Online-offline distribution mechanisms
			3.1. Consumer preferences for buying groceries, 2017
			3.13. Distributed ledger technologies help trace product provenance
		Going offline to ensure the right fit
		Online ordering in brick-and-mortar stores
	Innovative payment mechanisms
		Digital wallets can foster e-commerce
			3.14. Digital wallets: Digitalising payments in the real world
		Mobile money can help extend e-commerce to the unbanked
			3.15. M-Pesa: Enabling e-commerce for the unbanked
		Blockchain-enabled payment mechanisms may boost e-commerce
	Key areas for policy action
		Remove regulatory barriers that preserve artificial distinctions between online and offline commerce
		Encourage regulatory flexibility, experimentation and transparency
	Notes
	References
Annex A. Tapping into New Data Sources
	E-commerce is prevalent among firms with a Facebook page, but varies by sector
		A.1. Online sellers, 2017-18
		A.2. Online sellers by sector, 2017-18
	Even the smallest firms often participate in online sales, and many are managed by women
		A.3. Online sellers by firm size, 2017-18
	Firms using online tools are more likely to export, export to more countries and obtain larger shares of turnover from exports
		A.4. Online vs. offline exporters: Export intensity and number of export destinations
		A.5. Online vs. offline sellers: Challenges of selling to foreign markets
	Notes
	Reference
List of Figures
List of Boxes