Understanding Statistics in the Behavioral Sciences

Front Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
CONTENTS......Page 10
PART ONE: OVERVIEW......Page 34
CHAPTER 1 Statistics and Scientific Method......Page 36
Methods of Knowing......Page 37
Definitions......Page 39
Scientific Research and Statistics......Page 42
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics......Page 43
Using Computers in Statistics......Page 44
Statistics and the “Real World”......Page 45
WHAT IS THE TRUTH?: Data, Data, Where Are the Data?......Page 46
WHAT IS THE TRUTH?: Authorities Are Nice, but . . .......Page 47
WHAT IS THE TRUTH?: Data, Data, What Are the Data?—1......Page 48
WHAT IS THE TRUTH?: Data, Data, What Are the Data?—2......Page 49
Questions and Problems......Page 51
Enhanced WebAssign......Page 54
PART TWO: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS......Page 56
CHAPTER 2 Basic Mathematical and Measurement Concepts......Page 58
Mathematical Notation......Page 59
Summation......Page 60
Measurement Scales......Page 63
Measurement Scales in the Behavioral Sciences......Page 66
Continuous and Discrete Variables......Page 68
Questions and Problems......Page 71
Notes......Page 73
Enhanced WebAssign......Page 74
CHAPTER 3 Frequency Distributions......Page 75
Introduction: Ungrouped Frequency Distributions......Page 76
Grouping Scores......Page 77
Percentiles......Page 83
Percentile Rank......Page 87
Graphing Frequency Distributions......Page 89
Exploratory Data Analysis......Page 95
Summary......Page 97
Questions and Problems......Page 98
Enhanced WebAssign......Page 101
CHAPTER 4 Measures of Central Tendency and Variability......Page 102
Measures of Central Tendency......Page 103
Measures of Variability......Page 112
Questions and Problems......Page 118
Notes......Page 121
SPSS Illustrative Example......Page 122
Enhanced WebAssign......Page 127
CHAPTER 5 The Normal Curve and Standard Scores......Page 128
The Normal Curve......Page 129
Standard Scores (z Scores)......Page 131
Questions and Problems......Page 143
Enhanced WebAssign......Page 145
CHAPTER 6 Correlation......Page 146
Relationships......Page 147
Correlation......Page 154
WHAT IS THE TRUTH?: “Good Principal = Good Elementary School,” or Does It?......Page 170
WHAT IS THE TRUTH?: Money Doesn’t Buy Happiness, or Does It?......Page 171
Summary......Page 172
Questions and Problems......Page 173
SPSS Illustrative Example......Page 178
Enhanced WebAssign......Page 182
CHAPTER 7 Linear Regression......Page 183
Prediction and Imperfect Relationships......Page 184
Constructing the Least-Squares Regression Line: Regression of Y on X......Page 186
Regression of X on Y......Page 192
Measuring Prediction Errors: The Standard Error of Estimate......Page 195
Considerations in Using Linear Regression for Prediction......Page 198
Relation Between Regression Constants and Pearson r......Page 199
Multiple Regression......Page 200
Questions and Problems......Page 205
Enhanced WebAssign......Page 209
PART THREE: INFERENTIAL STATISTICS......Page 210
CHAPTER 8 Random Sampling and Probability......Page 212
Random Sampling......Page 213
Probability......Page 217
WHAT IS THE TRUTH?: “Not Guilty, I’m a Victim of Coincidence”: Gutsy Plea or Truth?......Page 240
WHAT IS THE TRUTH?: Sperm Count Decline—Male or Sampling Inadequacy?......Page 241
WHAT IS THE TRUTH?: A Sample of a Sample......Page 242
Summary......Page 243
Questions and Problems......Page 244
Enhanced WebAssign......Page 247
CHAPTER 9 Binomial Distribution......Page 248
Definition and Illustration of the Binomial Distribution......Page 249
Generating the Binomial Distribution from the Binomial Expansion......Page 252
Using the Binomial Table......Page 253
Using the Normal Approximation......Page 262
Summary......Page 267
Questions and Problems......Page 268
Enhanced WebAssign......Page 270
CHAPTER 10 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing Using the Sign Test......Page 271
Logic of Hypothesis Testing......Page 272
Type I and Type II Errors......Page 277
Alpha Level and the Decision Process......Page 278
Evaluating the Tail of the Distribution......Page 280
One- and Two-Tailed Probability Evaluations......Page 282
WHAT IS THE TRUTH?: Chance or Real Effect?—1......Page 289
WHAT IS THE TRUTH?: Chance or Real Effect?—2......Page 291
WHAT IS THE TRUTH?: “No Product Is Better Than Our Product”......Page 292
WHAT IS THE TRUTH?: Anecdotal Reports Versus Systematic Research......Page 293
Summary......Page 294
Questions and Problems......Page 295
Notes......Page 298
Enhanced WebAssign......Page 299
CHAPTER 11 Power......Page 300
P[sub(null)] and P[sub(real)]......Page 301
Power Analysis of the AIDS Experiment......Page 304
Interpreting Nonsignificant Results......Page 310
Calculation of Power......Page 311
WHAT IS THE TRUTH?: Astrology and Science......Page 316
Questions and Problems......Page 318
Notes......Page 319
Enhanced WebAssign......Page 320
CHAPTER 12 Sampling Distributions, Sampling Distribution of the Mean, the Normal Deviate (z) Test......Page 321
Sampling Distributions......Page 322
The Normal Deviate (z) Test......Page 326
Questions and Problems......Page 348
Enhanced WebAssign......Page 350
CHAPTER 13 Student’s t Test for Single Samples......Page 351
Comparison of the z and t Tests......Page 352
The Sampling Distribution of t......Page 353
t and z Distributions Compared......Page 355
Early Speaking Experiment Revisited......Page 356
Calculating t[sub(obt)] from Original Scores......Page 357
Size of Effect Using Cohen’s d......Page 362
Confidence Intervals for the Population Mean......Page 364
Testing the Significance of Pearson r......Page 369
Questions and Problems......Page 372
Notes......Page 375
Enhanced WebAssign......Page 376
CHAPTER 14 Student’s t Test for Correlated and Independent Groups......Page 377
Introduction......Page 378
Student’s t Test for Correlated Groups......Page 379
z and t Tests for Independent Groups......Page 386
z Test for Independent Groups......Page 388
Student’s t Test for Independent Groups......Page 390
Power of the t Test......Page 398
Correlated Groups and Independent Groups Designs Compared......Page 399
Alternative Analysis Using Confidence Intervals......Page 402
Summary......Page 405
Important New Terms......Page 406
Questions and Problems......Page 407
Notes......Page 412
Enhanced WebAssign......Page 414
CHAPTER 15 Introduction to the Analysis of Variance......Page 415
Introduction: The F Distribution......Page 416
F Test and the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)......Page 417
Overview of One-Way ANOVA......Page 419
Analyzing Data with the ANOVA Technique......Page 423
Logic Underlying the One-Way ANOVA......Page 427
Assumptions Underlying the Analysis of Variance......Page 431
Size of Effect Using ω[sup(2)] or η[sup(2)]......Page 432
Power of the Analysis of Variance......Page 433
Multiple Comparisons......Page 434
WHAT IS THE TRUTH?: Much Ado About Almost Nothing......Page 445
Summary......Page 446
Questions and Problems......Page 447
Enhanced WebAssign......Page 452
CHAPTER 16 Introduction to Two-Way Analysis of Variance......Page 453
Introduction to Two-Way ANOVA—Qualitative Presentation......Page 454
Quantitative Presentation of Two-Way ANOVA......Page 457
Analyzing an Experiment with Two-Way ANOVA......Page 464
Multiple Comparisons......Page 478
Summary......Page 479
Questions and Problems......Page 480
Enhanced WebAssign......Page 482
CHAPTER 17 Chi-Square and Other Nonparametric Tests......Page 483
Introduction: Distinction Between Parametric and Nonparametric Tests......Page 484
Chi-Square (X[sup(2)])......Page 485
The Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed Ranks Test......Page 499
The Mann–Whitney U Test......Page 502
The Kruskal–Wallis Test......Page 508
WHAT IS THE TRUTH?: Statistics and Applied Social Research—Useful or “Abuseful”?......Page 513
Summary......Page 515
Questions and Problems......Page 516
Enhanced WebAssign......Page 523
CHAPTER 18 Review of Inferential Statistics......Page 524
Terms and Concepts......Page 525
Process of Hypothesis Testing......Page 526
Single Sample Designs......Page 527
Correlated Groups Design: Two Groups......Page 529
Independent Groups Design: Two Groups......Page 531
Multigroup Experiments......Page 532
Analyzing Nominal Data......Page 538
Choosing the Appropriate Test......Page 539
Questions and Problems......Page 541
Enhanced WebAssign......Page 547
APPENDIXES......Page 548
A: Review of Prerequisite Mathematics......Page 550
B: Equations......Page 560
C: Answers to End-of-Chapter Questions and Problems......Page 569
D: Tables......Page 584
E: Symbols......Page 609
GLOSSARY......Page 613
INDEX......Page 622