Understanding Nature: Ecology for a New Generation

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
About the Author
1 Introduction
	A 21st-Century Response
	The Goals of This Book
	Ecology’s Magic Glasses
	What Is Ecology?
	What Became of the Early Nature Study Movement?
	Today’s Nature Study
	The Strategy for This Book
	Closing Arguments
	References
2 We Stand on their Shoulders
	Introduction
	Natural History Meets Traditional Ecological Knowledge
	The Wolf, the Raven
	The History of SEK
	The Renaissance and Natural History
	1700s – Age of Exploration and Natural History
	Linnaeus
	1800s – Age of Evolution
	Gilbert White
	Charles Darwin and the Founding of Ecology
	The Wolf and the Raven
	To What Ends? Next Steps
	References
3 Biomes, Life Forms, and Ecoregions
	Introduction
	Are There Animal Life Forms?
	How Did the Concept of Biomes Arise?
	What Determines Where Biomes Are Located?
	What Are the Limitations of Biomes?
	What Are Ecoregions and Are They Better Than Biomes?
	World Wildlife Fund Designations
	The 14 Land Biomes Recognized by WWF
	Next Steps
	References
4 Biomes: Tundra and Taiga
	What Is Meant by “Tundra?”
	Does Antarctica Have Tundra?
	What Is the Vegetative Life Form for Tundra?
	What Are Other Characteristics of Arctic Tundra?
	Animal Life in Arctic Tundra
	Conservation Problems of Arctic Tundra
	What Are Characteristics of Alpine Tundra?
	What Is Meant by Taiga?
	What Is the Plant Life Form for Taiga?
	What Are Other Characteristics of Taiga?
	Conservation Problems of Taiga
	References
5 Biomes: Grassland
	What Is Meant by “Grassland?”
	What Are Characteristics of Temperate Grassland?
	What Is the Plant Life Form for Temperate Grassland?
	The Desert-Forest Diagonal in Temperate Grassland
	Animal Life in Temperate Grassland
	Grassland Conservation Problems
	The Great Plains of North America
	North American Grassland Not in the Great Plains
	Open Canopy Areas and Grassland in Eastern N. America
	Tropical Grassland, Savanna, and Shrubland
	Conservation of Tropical Grassland, Savanna, and Shrubland
	South American Grassland
	Grassland and Savanna of Africa
	Australian Grassland
	References
6 Biomes: Shrubland, Thickets, and Desert
	What Is Meant by Shrubland (Scrubland)?
	What Is the Plant Life Form for Shrubland?
	What Are Other Characteristics of Shrubland?
	What Animals Occur in Shrubland?
	Locations of Shrubland and Notable Types
	Mediterranean
	Thorn Scrub
	Great Basin of the U.S
	Southwestern Australian
	Fynbos – Cape Region of South Africa
	Coastal Shrubland of Europe
	Chaparral and Chaco of the Americas
	Grand Choco of South America
	Heathland of Europe
	Thickets in U.S. Forests
	Conservation of Shrubland
	What Is “Desert?”
	What Are Other Characteristics of Desert?
	Desert Formation
	Plant Life Form in Desert
	Animal Life in Desert
	The Major Ecological Processes of Desert
	Deserts of N. America
	Conservation Problems of Desert
	References
7 Biomes: Savanna and Forest
	Introduction
	What Is Savanna?
	What Are Characteristics of Savanna?
	Animals of Savanna?
	Conservation of Savanna
	Does N. America Have Savanna? Yes
	What Is Meant by Forest?
	What Is the Plant Life Forms of Forest?
	Characteristics of Temperate Deciduous Broadleaf Forest
	Stratification in Temperate Deciduous Broadleaf Forests
	Light Varies Seasonally within the Temperate Deciduous Broadleaf Forest
	Types of Deciduous Broadleaf Forest in Eastern N. America
	Temperate Evergreen Forests
	Other Temperate Coniferous Forests in N. America
	Tropical Forests
	Soils of Tropical Forest
	Humans in the Tropical Forest and Conservation
	Tropical Rainforest Life Forms
	Animals of Tropical Rainforest
	Tropical Seasonal Forest
	References
8 Why are Biomes where they Are?
	Introduction
	What Determines Life Form at the Global Level?
	What Determines Climate?
	Determinants of Life Form at the Global Level – Seasons
	Determinants of Life Form at the Global Level – Air Masses
	Determinants of Life Form at the Global Level – Prevailing Winds
	Determinants of Life Form at the Global Level – Trade Winds, ITCZ, Doldrums, Monsoons
	Determinants of Life Form at the Global Level – El Nino
	Determinants of Life Form at the Continental Level – Prevailing Westerlies in Temperate Latitudes
	Determinants of Life Form at the Regional Level – Altitude
	Why Do Vegetation Patterns Change with Altitude?
	Determinants of Life Form at the Regional Level – Aspect
	Determinants of Life Form at the Regional Level – Rain Shadow
	Determinants of Life Form at the Regional Level – Valley Influences
	Determinants of Life Form at the Regional Level – Maritime Influences
	Determinants of Life Form at the Local Level
	References
9 Why are Individual Species where they Are?
	What Characterizes Species Diversity Patterns throughout the Earth?
	The Species Distribution Constraint Hierarchy
	Working through the Constraint Hierarchy at the Global Level
	Tolerance Limits
	Species Gradients
	The Constraint Hierarchy at the Regional Spatial Scale
	Dispersal
	Speciation
	The Constraint Hierarchy at the Local Spatial Scale
	Next Steps
	References
10 Introduction to Evolution: The Modern Synthesis
	Three Periods for Understanding Biological Evolution
	What Were the Main Features of the Darwinian Synthesis?
	What Were the Main Features of the Modern Synthesis?
	Three Further Categories for Understanding the Modern Synthesis
	What Is Molecular Evolution?
	What Is Meant by Microevolution?
	What Are the Basics of Microevolution and Population Genetics?
	Why Do Changes in Allele Frequency Occur?
	Natural Selection in More Detail
	What Are Adaptations?
	Natural Selection Does Not Create Adaptations
	Specific Types of Evolution and Natural Selection
	Kin Selection
	Can Kin Selection Be Applied to Humans?
	The Evolution of an Idea
	References
11 Advances in Microevolution, Molecular Evolution, and Evo-Devo
	The Revolution in Evolution
	What Are the Features of Postmodern Thinking?
	Postmodern Discoveries in Developmental Biology
	Phenotypic Plasticity within Evo-Devo
	How Does Phenotypic Plasticity Affect Evolution?
	The Emerging Paradigm
	References
12 An Autobiography of the Earth
	Getting a Handle on a 4.5-Billion-Year-Old Autobiography
	The Most Important Events within Macroevolution
	The 14-Billion-Year Time Scale
	What Is a Fossil?
	The History of Life and Systematics
	Geologic History Since 600 mya (Lomolino et al. 2016)
	Tectonic Plates
	Geologic History Since 600 mya
	Evolution during the Paleozoic – Cambrian
	Evolution during the Paleozoic – Ordovician
	Evolution during the Paleozoic – Silurian
	Evolution during the Paleozoic – Carboniferous
	The Mesozoic
	Evolution in the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous
	The Cenozoic
	Evolution in the Cenozoic – Paleogene
	Evolution in the Cenozoic – Neogene
	Evolution in the Pleistocene on a 2-Million-Year Scale
	History of Humans
	The Overkill Hypothesis
	Summary of Macroevolution Events
	Evidence for Evolution
	References
13 Introduction to Statistics
	Introduction
	The Null Hypothesis
	The Problems with Null Hypotheses
		P value
	Why Do We Use P=0.05 as the Cutoff Point?
	An Obsession with Rejection–Statistical versus Scientific Significance
	Means Comparisons
	Parametric versus Non-parametric Tests
	Which Is the Best Choice, Parametric or Non-Parametric?
	What If the First Two Assumptions of the t-Test Are Not Met?
	What If the Researcher Is Comparing More Than Two Means?
	Post Hoc Tests to Compare Pairs of Means
	How Do I Signify Pairwise Significant Differences on My Graph?
	Tabular Comparisons: Comparing Frequencies through Chi-Square Test
	Example Hypotheses Tested in Chi-Square
	Correlation and Regression
	How Are Regression and Correlation Different?
	Some Other Differences between Regression and Correlation
	The Strength of the Correlation Can Be Measured
	Words of Caution about Correlation
	References
14 Population Ecology Basics
	Why Focus on One Species at a Time?
	Where Should a Student Begin?
	What Is a Population?
	What Is Population Ecology?
	When Did Population Ecology Arise?
	How Is a Population “delineated?”
	How Many Individuals Are in a Population?
	How Are the Number of Individuals Counted?
	What Is Relative Abundance?
	What Is an Index?
	What Is Noise?
	More Difficulties: What about Counting Modular Units?
	What about Counting Clones?
	How Are Individuals Distributed?
	Conclusions about the Population Concept
	Vital Rates
	Graphical Modeling for Animals
	Incorporating Vital Rates to Make a Life Table
	What Is a Life Table?
	How to Read Life Tables
	Life Tables in Ecology
	What Is a Fecundity Table?
	What Are the Different Types of Life Tables?
	What Can We Conclude Overall about Life Tables?
	Simple Equations for Modeling Population Growth
	What Is Exponential and Arithmetic Growth?
	The Equations for Exponential Growth
	How Do We Assign Values to r or R?
	References
15 Population Ecology’s Profound Questions
	What Is This Chapter About?
	The Challenge for Students
	The Remedy Is Clarity and Context
	Spoiler Alert – Answers to This Chapter’s Big Questions
	Logistic Growth Models
	The Equilibrium Theory Formalized in the 1920s
	The Equilibrium Debate Begins in the 1930s
	What “Regulates” Population Growth?
	Non-equilibrium School of Thought
	Support and Evidence for Density Independence
	Which Side Was Right in the Equilibrium Debate?
	Do We See the Logistic Pattern for Newly Colonized Species?
	Why Not Logistic Growth – Abiotic Factors
	Why Not Logistic Growth– Biotic Factors, the Allee Effect
	Why Not Logistic Growth – Biotic Factors, Stunting
	If the Sigmoid Curve Is Not Typical, What Is the Common Pattern?
	Examples of Boom, Bust, and Irruptions
	What Explains Boom and Bust– Phytoplankton Example
	What Explains Boom and Bust– Self-Thinning in Trees
	What Else Explains Boom and Bust – Biotic Effects, Compensatory Mortality
	Why Do the Phytoplankton Populations Not Go Locally Extinct – The “Law” of Diminishing Returns in Hunting
	Revisiting the Phytoplankton Case, Why the Bimodal Curve?
	In the Equilibrium Debate, Who Was Right?
	Life Histories (K Selected, r Selected Species) and a Truce
	The Iteroparity/Semelparity Phenomenon and Its Significance
	Problems with the rand K Hypothesis
	Advances in Modeling: Time Lags, Stage Structure, Leslie Matrices
	What Does Stage Structure Mean?
	Matrix Projection Models
	The Curious Phenomenon of Chaos
	Further Theoretical Ideas – Metapopulations
	What Are Stochastic Models?
	Stochastic Modeling for Small Populations – Endangered Species Management
	A Summary of Current Population Models – And a Wish List
	Are There Any Good Models Not Based on the Logistic?
	What Is the Current Understanding in the Equilibrium/Non-equilibrium Debate?
	References
16 Community Ecology Basics
	What Characterizes Community Ecology?
	Questions Asked by Community Ecologists
	What Are the Ways Organisms Can Interact?
	What Is the Difference between Symbiosis, Mutualism, and Facilitation?
	Summary of Mutualism
	Commensalism and Amensalism
	Predation
	Herbivory
	Parasitism
	Competition
	Competition: The Central Concept in Ecology?
	References
17 Theory in Community Ecology/Competition
	Early Assumptions about Ecological Communities
	Competition in a Garden
	Predicting Winners through Lotka-Volterra Equations
	How Do Environmental Conditions Affect Competition?
	Does the Lotka-Volterra Model Apply Well to Natural Situations?
	The Golden Age of Ecological Theory – Hutchinson, MacArthur, and Wilson
	What Is a Niche?
	The Hutchinsonian Definition of Niche
	What Happens If Two Species Try to Occupy the Same Niche?
	The Equilibrium Debate
	The Theory of Island Biogeography
	Simberloff-Diamond Debate: How to Do Science
	Simberloff-Diamond Debate: SLOSS
	What Is the Neutral Model in Ecology?
	Ideas That Emerged Since 1975 in Understanding Community Structure
	Endnotes, Updates, and Conclusions
	References
18 Predation
	Truth, Myth, and Controversy
	The Answers Start with Definitions
	More Definitions: Not All Predators Kill the Same Way
	What Is Hyperpredation?
	Ecological Theory Regarding Predation
	Do Predator-Prey Dynamics Cycle?
	How Can Predators and Prey Coexist?
	The Insights of Holling
	Plant Defenses against Herbivores
	Modeling Predator-Prey Interactions
	Keystone Predators
	Keystone Species That Are Not Predators
	Jane Lubchenco
	Menge and Sutherland
	References
19 Succession
	Succession Overview
	Types of Succession
	Theoretical Questions about Succession
	Theory of Succession
	The Individualistic View of Succession
	Resolution of the Debates
	Models That Organize Ideas about What Controls Community Changes during Succession
	Disturbance
	Analysis of the Succession and Community Ecology Paradigm – Facilitation
	Further Advances in Understanding and Modeling Mutualism
	References
20 Ecosystem Ecology Basics
	What Characterizes Ecosystem Ecology?
	Characteristics of Ecosystem Ecology – Machine Theory
	Characteristics of Ecosystem Ecology – Holism
	Characteristics of Ecosystem Ecology – Emergent Properties
	Characteristics of Ecosystem Ecology – Systems Approach
	Characteristics of Ecosystem Ecology – Feedback Loops
	Characteristics of Ecosystem Ecology – Food Chains and Trophic Levels
	Characteristics of Ecosystem Ecology – Adaptive Management
	The Aquatic Ecology Legacy
	Legacy of Birge and Juday
	Raymond Lindeman
	The Odums
	The Savannah River Project in South Carolina
	Ecosystem Ecology after 1960 – Big Biology
	The IBP
	The Environmental Movement and Environmental Studies
	References
21 Energy
	The Ecosystem Machine
	What Is Energy?
	What Are Photons?
	Wavelengths or Frequencies?
	What Is Sound, MRI, CT, and Ultrasound?
	Back to the Ecosystem Machine – Energy Can Change Form
	Sun Energy and Its Effect on Earth’s Atmosphere
	The Ocean Energy Budget
	El Nino Phenomena
	References
22 Matter
	What Is Nutrient Recycling
	Organizing Categories in Biogeochemistry – Compartments
	Organizing Categories in Biogeochemistry – State and Carbon Condition
	Nutrient Cycles
	Hydrologic Cycle
	Carbon Cycle
	Carbon in Water and Its Effect on pH
	Carbon Decomposition in Lakes
	Carbon Cycle Dynamics in General
	Nitrogen Cycle
	Final Analysis
	References
23 Ecosystem Regulation
	Introductory Principles
	Why Is the World Green?
	Eutrophication in Lakes
	David Schindler
	More Lake Studies – Lake Michigan
	Solutions for Lake Michigan and the Great Lakes
	Whole Lake Experiments – Steve Carpenter
	What Does This Tell Us about the Regulation of Lakes?
	Trophic Cascades in Benthic Ecosystems?
	Nutrient Cycles in Terrestrial Ecosystems – Hubbard Brook
	What Regulates Ecosystems?
	Alternative Stable States
	Ecosystem Summary
	References
24 Landscape Ecology
	Introduction
	Major Themes
	Vocabulary in Landscape Ecology
	Progression of Theory in Landscape Ecology
	1960s
	1970s
	1980s
	1990s
	Recent and Future Models
	Top Five Uses for Landscape Ecology
	Synthesis
	References
25 Wildlife Management and Habitat Ecology
	Why Wildlife Management?
	The Leopoldian Basics of Wildlife Management
	Food Found in Edge
	Food Types
	Digestion – Birds
	Digestion – Mammals
	Are Salt Licks Useful? What about Other Supplements?
	Water
	Cover
	Space
	What Are Edge Effects?
	Is Edge the Villain?
	Is Clear-Cutting Detrimental to Songbirds?
	References
26 Wildlife Management for Temperate Farms and Ranches
	What Is the Goal of This Chapter?
	Four Management Priorities
	Applying Management Priorities to Farms and Ranches
	Treat Water Like Gold
	Provide a Mosaic
	Protect Unique and Important Habitat Features
	Minimize Invasive and Introduced Species
	Government Programs
	Conservation of Grassland at Airports
	References
27 Wildlife Management in Temperate Forests
	What Type of Forest Has Optimal Conservation Value?
	Highest Priorities
	Treat Water Like Gold
	What Is the Ideal Width of a Riparian Zone?
	Provide a Mosaic
	Protect Unique and Important Habitat Features
	Shrubby Thickets in Eastern N. America
	Minimize Invasive Introduced Species
	Minimize Human Interference
	Ready to Write a Forest Management Plan?
	References
28 Conservation Biology
	What Is Conservation Biology?
	Characteristics of Conservation Biology
	Conserving Species Diversity
	The Gap between the Number Named and the Number Existing
	Extinction Rates
	Population Decline
	IUCN Red List
	The Sixth Great Extinction Event
	What Are the Causes of the Current Extinction Crisis?
	Habitat Loss
	Overexploitation – Hunting and Overharvesting
	Global Climate Change
	Introduction of Non-Native Species
	Understanding Extinction – The Most Extinction-Prone Species?
	What Are the Most Extinction-Prone Habitats?
	Managing Land for Protection of Biodiversity
	Irreplaceability Approach to Managing Land – Hotspots
	Comprehensiveness Approach to Managing Land – Gap Analysis
	Representative Approach to Managing Land – Biosphere Reserves
	Connectivity Approach to Managing Land – Wildlands Network (Originally Known as Wildlands Project)
	Beyond Managing Land – Other Solutions for Conserving Biodiversity
	Conclusions
	References
29 Restoration Ecology
	Restoration Approaches
	What Is Next After Identifying Spatial Scale and Place on the Spectrum?
	Values of the Stakeholders
	Setting Goals for the Restoration Effort
	The Diagnosis and Treatment Plan?
	Reference Ecosystems for the Project
	The Restoration Execution
	Hydrology (Apfelbaum and Haney 2010)
	Pollutants
	Biological Techniques
	What Are the Indicators of Success?
	Example: A Landscape Ecology Understanding of Restoration
	References
30 Aquatic Ecology
	Introduction
	Without Biomes, How Are Waterways Classified?
	Waterway Classifications – Salt Content
	Classification of Freshwaters
	Classification of Wetlands
	Ecology of Streams and Rivers
	Characteristics of Streams from Source to Mouth
	What Are the Food Sources for Animals in Streams?
	Habitat Classification within Lakes
	Stratification within Lakes
	Is the Epilimnion Well Oxygenated?
	Is the Hypolimnion Well Oxygenated?
	The World Experienced by Plankton – Reynolds Number
	Nutrient Content Classification of Lakes
	What Characterizes Saltwater Ecosystems?
	Tides
	Major Ecological Communities in Oceans
	References
31 New Perspectives in Biogeography
	The Relevance of Biogeography
	Subsections of Biogeography
	The Constraint Hierarchy in Chapter 9
	The Niche Concept
	Large Spatial Scales
	Regional Spatial Scales
	Local Special Scales – Interspecific Interactions
	How Biogeography Can Fundamentally Change Our Ideas about Communities and Ecosystems
	The Future of Biogeography
	References
32 Wicked Problems
	Introductory Principles
	Essential Vocabulary
	The Super Wicked
	What Is Adaptation?
	Resilience
	References
33 Epilogue – The Evolution of an Idea
	Historical Overview
	Existing Organizational Ideas in Theoretical Concepts
	Toward a New Understanding
	A Simplified Organizational Scheme
	Does Ecology Have Laws?
	A Summary of Ecological Understanding – Narrative
	Ideas Specific to Ecology – Global Scale
	Ideas Specific to Ecology – Regional Scale
	Ideas Specific to Ecology – Local Scale
	The Present and Future
	What Can We Do?
	What Ecology Is and Is Not
	References
Index