Understanding Language Change

Cover
Title
Copyright
Contents
List of figures
List of maps
List of tables
Acknowledgements
Publisher’s acknowledgements
List of abbreviations
1 Setting the scene
	Introduction
	1.1 Change occurs at all levels
		1.1.1 Phonetics and phonology
		1.1.2 Morphology
		1.1.3 Syntax
		1.1.4 Semantics
		1.1.5 Pragmatics
		1.1.6 Change across different levels
	1.2 Variation and change – two sides of the same coin
	1.3 Evidence of change in progress
	1.4 Attitudes to change
	1.5 How this book is structured
	Summary
	Further reading
	Exercises
2 Changes to the lexicon
	Introduction
	2.1 Gaining words – lexical addition
		2.1.1 Compounding
		2.1.2 Affixation
		2.1.3 Backformation
		2.1.4 Conversion
		2.1.5 Abbreviation
		2.1.6 Acronyms
		2.1.7 Blending
		2.1.8 Commonization
		2.1.9 Reduplication
		2.1.10 Borrowing
		2.1.11 Sound symbolism
		2.1.12 A final word on the processes
	2.2 Losing words – lexical mortality
		2.2.1 Obsolescence
		2.2.2 “Verbicide”
		2.2.3 Reduction
		2.2.4 Intolerable homonymy
	2.3 Etymology – study of the origin of words
	Summary
	Further reading
	Exercises
3 Changes to the semantics
	Introduction
	3.1 Consequences of semantic change
		3.1.1 Broadening
		3.1.2 Narrowing
		3.1.3 Shift
		3.1.4 Changing values – amelioration and deterioration
		3.1.5 Chain reaction changes
	3.2 Why words change their meanings
		3.2.1 Socio-cultural factors
		3.2.2 Psychological factors
		3.2.3 Linguistic factors
	3.3 Regularity in semantic change – a more explanatory account
	Summary
	Sources and further reading
	Exercises
4 Changes in sound structure
	Introduction
	4.1 Phonological processes
		4.1.1 Old sounds drop out – loss
		4.1.2 New sounds appear
		4.1.3 Old sounds are modified – assimilation, dissimilation, metathesis
	4.2 Phonetic versus phonemic change
		4.2.1 Phonetic change – changes in accent
		4.2.2 Phonemic change – changes that alter the sound system
	4.3 On exceptions in sound change
	4.4 Why do sounds change?
		4.4.1 Simplicity
		4.4.2 Contact induced change
		4.4.3 Structural pressure
		4.4.4 Social change
		4.4.5 Frequency factors
	Summary
	Further reading
	Exercises
5 Changes in word structure
	Introduction
	5.1 Reanalysis and actualization – reinterpretation of structure
	5.2 Analogy – attraction to structure
	5.3 Typology – change in morphological type
	5.4 Why – explaining morphological changes
	Summary
	Further reading
	Exercises
6 Changes in sentence structure
	Introduction
	6.1 Change in word order
		6.1.1 Grammatical change is gradual
	6.2 Typology and word order change
		6.2.1 The contribution of Joseph Greenberg and others
	6.3 Creating grammar
		6.3.1 Case study – the evolution of not in English
		6.3.2 Where is English negation heading now?
	Summary
	Sources and further reading
	Exercises
7 The spread of change
	Introduction
	7.1 Diffusion within the linguistic system
	7.2 Spread in social structures – the speech community and the individual
		7.2.1 Wavy, gravity, cascady . . .
		7.2.2 Social factors
		7.2.3 Social networks
		7.2.4 Communities of practice
	Summary
	Further reading
	Exercises
8 Languages in contact
	Introduction
	8.1 Types of contact
		8.1.1 Language maintenance
		8.1.2 Language shift
		8.1.3 The creation of new languages
		8.1.4 The linguistic Sprachbund – a special case of language convergence
	8.2 Case study: Pennsylvania German and English in contact
		8.2.1 English to Pennsylvania German – superstratum influence
		8.2.2 Pennsylvania German transfers into English – substratum influence
	8.3 Language death
	8.4 Language planning and policy
	8.5 The dangers of purism
	Summary
	Further reading
	Exercises
9 Relatedness between languages
	Introduction
	9.1 Languages, dialects and standards
	9.2 Establishing genetic relationships
	9.3 The family tree model
	9.4 The wave model
	9.5 Quantitative approaches to language divergence
	9.6 Long-distance comparison and Proto-World
	9.7 Reconstructing the past
		9.7.1 Written sources as evidence of change
		9.7.2 The comparative method
	Summary
	Further reading
	Exercises
10 An end on’t
	Introduction
	10.1 Five questions for any theory of change
	10.2 Additional theoretical perspectives
		10.2.1 Corpus linguistics
		10.2.2 Historical pragmatics
	10.3 Historical sociolinguistics
	10.4 The rate of change – diversity and stability
		10.4.1 The effects of new and emerging media
		10.4.2 Social change
	10.5 Where to from here?
	Further reading
	Exercises
References
Index