Understanding Explosions

Understanding Explosions......Page 1
Preface......Page 4
Acknowledgements......Page 6
Table of Contents......Page 7
1. Introduction......Page 11
1.1 Accident Loss History......Page 13
1.3 A Case HistoryFlixborough, England......Page 14
1.4 Hazard Identification and Evaluation......Page 16
1.5 Inherently Safer Design......Page 17
2. Fundamentals of Fires and Explosions......Page 18
2.1 Gases and Vapors......Page 22
2.1.1 Flammability Diagram......Page 27
2.1.2 Estimating Flammability Limits......Page 37
2.1.3 Temperature Effect on Flammability......Page 39
2.1.5 Flammability of Gaseous Mixtures......Page 40
2.1.6 Minimum Ignition Energies......Page 41
2.1.8 Example Applications......Page 43
2.2 Liquids......Page 46
2.2.1 Flashpoints of Mixtures of Liquids......Page 49
2.2.2 Example Applications......Page 51
2.3 Aerosols and Mists......Page 52
2.6 Kinetics and Thermochemistry......Page 57
2.6.1 Calculated Adiabatic Flame Temperatures (CAFT)......Page 59
2.6.2 Example Application......Page 61
2.7 Gas Dynamics......Page 63
2.7.1 Detonations and Deflagrations......Page 67
2.7.2 Estimating Peak Side-On Overpressures......Page 70
2.7.3 Example Applications......Page 71
2.7.4 Pressure Piling and Deflagration to Detonation Transition......Page 72
2.8 Physical Explosions......Page 73
2.8.1 BLEVEs......Page 74
2.8.2 Rapid Phase Transition Explosions......Page 76
2.9 Vapor Cloud Explosions......Page 77
2.9.1 TNT Equivalency......Page 79
2.9.2 TNO Multi-Energy Method......Page 80
2.9.3 BakerStrehlowTang Method (AIChE, 1999a)......Page 86
2.9.4 Computational Fluid Mechanics (CFD) Method......Page 91
2.9.5 Example Applications......Page 92
2.10 Run Away Reactions......Page 94
2.10.1 Steady-State and Dynamic Reactor Behavior......Page 97
2.10.2 Experimental Characterization......Page 101
2.11 Condensed Phase Explosions......Page 103
2.12 Fireballs, Pool, Flash, and Jet Fires......Page 105
2.13.1 Thermal Exposure......Page 107
2.13.2 Overpressure Exposure......Page 108
2.14 Ignition Sources......Page 112
2.14.1 Static Electricity......Page 114
3.2. Inherently Safer Design......Page 122
3.3. Using the Flammability Diagram to Avoid Flammable Atmospheres......Page 126
3.4. Inerting and Purging......Page 129
3.4.1. Vacuum Purging......Page 130
3.4.2. Pressure Purging......Page 132
3.4.3. Combined PressureVacuum Purging......Page 133
3.4.4. Sweep Purging......Page 135
3.4.6. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Various Inerting Procedures......Page 136
3.4.8. Inert Purging and Blanketing During Drumming Operations......Page 137
3.5. Example Application......Page 139
3.7. Grounding and Bonding......Page 141
3.8. Ventilation......Page 147
3.9. Sprinkler and Deluge Systems......Page 148
3.11. Example Application......Page 151
3.12. Charging Powders......Page 154
3.13. Electrical Equipment in Hazardous (Classified) Areas......Page 157
3.13.1. Protection Techniques......Page 165
Part A: Equations Useful for Gas Mixtures......Page 170
Part B: Equations Useful for Placing Vessels Into and Out of Service......Page 174
Appendix B: Equations for Determining the Energy of Explosion......Page 178
B.1. Example Application......Page 180
Appendix C: Flammability Data for Selected Materials......Page 182
Appendix D: Procedure for Example 3.2......Page 186
Appendix E: Combustion Data for Dust Clouds......Page 200
References......Page 202
Glossary......Page 211
Index......Page 217