Understanding Environmental Pollution, Third Edition

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Dedication......Page 7
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 11
Acknowledgements......Page 14
Abbreviations and acronyms......Page 15
Humans are massively changing the Earth......Page 19
Incomplete oxidation of hydrocarbons......Page 0
Preventing floods......Page 21
Stabilizing soil depends on more than trees......Page 22
Other ecosystem services......Page 23
Vital species......Page 24
What is happening to Earth’s ecosystems?......Page 25
When pollution is obvious......Page 26
Natural pollutants......Page 28
Pollutant sources......Page 30
Pollutants move and are transformed......Page 31
Air transport......Page 32
Organic pollutants......Page 34
Inorganic pollutants......Page 35
Pollution that devastates......Page 36
Possibilities that could decrease your concern......Page 37
Pollution in lesseveloped countries......Page 39
China’s environment......Page 40
The difficulty in being optimistic......Page 42
Poverty and the environment......Page 43
Technology......Page 46
Each of us impacts our environment......Page 47
Antibiotics and hormones......Page 48
Further reading......Page 50
Internet resources......Page 51
Chemical risk assessment......Page 52
Comparative risk assessment......Page 53
Choosing issues to compare......Page 54
Getting technical assistance......Page 55
Laws in the United States......Page 56
Controlling pollution by command-and-control......Page 57
Limitations of command-and-control......Page 59
A right-to-know law......Page 60
TRI laws in other countries......Page 62
The waste management hierarchy (WMH)......Page 63
Pollution prevention......Page 64
Recycling and reuse......Page 66
Disposal......Page 68
Industrial symbiosis......Page 69
Beyond Kalundborg......Page 71
Terminology......Page 75
Dose......Page 78
Exposure to multiple chemicals......Page 80
Systemic and local effects......Page 81
Ingestion......Page 82
Metabolism (M)......Page 83
Excretion (E)......Page 85
Variation within a species......Page 87
Nutrition......Page 88
Liver......Page 89
The central nervous system......Page 90
Local effects......Page 91
Systemic effects......Page 92
Timing as important as dose......Page 93
Why is children’s exposure greater?......Page 94
Children of the poor......Page 95
Cancer......Page 96
Environmental hormones......Page 98
Impacts on fish and other wildlife......Page 100
Is human health being harmed by exposure to bisphenol A?......Page 101
Is human health being harmed by exposure to phthalates?......Page 103
Are environmental hormones impacting humans?......Page 104
Internet resources......Page 105
Exposure......Page 107
Dioxins......Page 108
Body burden......Page 109
Epidemiological studies......Page 111
Exposure......Page 112
Judging epidemiological studies......Page 113
The limits of epidemiology......Page 114
Chemical risk assessment......Page 116
Why do we do chemical risk assessments?......Page 117
Step 2: Dose–response assessment......Page 119
Step 3: Exposure assessment......Page 121
Step 1: Hazard identification......Page 122
Step 3: Dose–response assessment for possible carcinogens......Page 123
Risks to wildlife......Page 126
Back to the developed world......Page 127
Laws and regulations......Page 128
Non-regulatory tools to manage risk......Page 129
Using the precautionary principle to lower risk......Page 130
Chemical risk assessment......Page 131
Internet resources......Page 133
Criteria (or principal) air pollutants......Page 135
Carbon monoxide (CO)......Page 137
Reducing CO emissions......Page 138
Why O3 is of concern......Page 140
Difficulties in setting and complying with O3 standards......Page 142
Sulfur dioxide......Page 143
Reducing SO2 emissions......Page 145
Why PM is of concern and which particles are of most concern......Page 148
Sources of PM10 and PM2.5 and environmental fate......Page 150
Reducing PM emissions......Page 152
Lead......Page 153
Sources and fate of VOCs......Page 154
Reducing VOC emissions......Page 155
Why HAPS are of concern......Page 156
Reducing emissions of HAPS......Page 158
Europe......Page 159
Instrumental observation......Page 160
Investigating observations......Page 161
Giant dust storms......Page 162
Dust storms are intensifying......Page 164
Dried-up water bodies......Page 165
What are the impacts on children?......Page 166
Air pollution in Calcutta......Page 167
How can air pollution be lessened?......Page 168
Reducing pollution in Eastern Europe......Page 169
Reducing transboundary pollution: past and current efforts......Page 170
Further reading......Page 171
Internet resources......Page 172
Acid pollutants......Page 173
Background......Page 174
Sulfur dioxide......Page 180
US lakes and streams......Page 182
Transboundary issues......Page 183
Working on recovery......Page 184
Asia......Page 185
Further reading......Page 186
Internet resources......Page 187
7 Global climate change......Page 188
Greenhouse pollutants of concern......Page 189
Earth is warming......Page 194
Alaska......Page 196
Melting, flowing, and sliding ice......Page 197
Around the world......Page 198
General circulation models......Page 200
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)......Page 202
CO 2sinks......Page 205
Methane sources......Page 207
Ozone and ozone sources......Page 208
Fate of N2O......Page 209
Soot as a greenhouse “gas”......Page 210
Kyoto Protocol......Page 212
Kyoto Protocol reductions but a small beginning......Page 213
Conservation and efficiency to reduce CO2 emissions......Page 214
Industry action to reduce GHG emissions......Page 215
Reducing methane emissions......Page 216
City, state, and national efforts to reduce greenhouse gases......Page 217
Cities......Page 218
Lesseveloped countries......Page 219
Adapting to climate change......Page 221
Adapting to continuing releases of CO2 by sequestration......Page 222
What does a greenhouse future hold?......Page 224
Taking action beyond Kyoto......Page 226
Further reading......Page 227
Internet resources......Page 228
8 Stratospheric ozone depletion......Page 231
Ultraviolet radiation......Page 233
A brief history......Page 236
Sources of ozone-depleting pollutants in the stratosphere......Page 237
Environmental fate of CFCs and halons......Page 238
Antarctica......Page 239
Human health impacts......Page 242
Harm of UV radiation to other life......Page 244
Other damage from UV radiation......Page 245
The Montreal Protocol......Page 246
Less-developed countries......Page 247
Developing alternatives for ozone-depleting chemicals......Page 248
A decline in CFCs and a return to normalcy......Page 250
Internet resources......Page 251
9 Water pollution......Page 254
Biochemical Oxygen Demand......Page 259
Nutrients......Page 260
pH......Page 262
Oil and grease......Page 263
Sources of pathogens......Page 265
Pesticides......Page 266
Banned discharges......Page 267
Groundwater......Page 268
Pollution prevention and reducing groundwater contamination......Page 269
Volatile organic chemicals in groundwater......Page 270
Wetlands......Page 271
Why so much coastal pollution......Page 272
Shellfish harvesting......Page 273
Plastics are a major pollutant......Page 275
Coastal protection......Page 276
Wastewater......Page 278
Wastewater treatment......Page 279
Limits to controlling point sources......Page 281
Reusing sewage indirectly for drinking water......Page 282
Reusing wastewater inappropriately?......Page 283
Small and very small communities, and industrial operations......Page 284
Reducing agricultural runoff......Page 286
Reducing urban runoff......Page 287
Reducing nonpoint source runoff from other activities......Page 288
The “nitrogen glut” and dead zones......Page 290
Algal blooms......Page 292
Livestock operations......Page 293
The US Gulf of Mexico......Page 294
Reviving the Black Sea dead zone......Page 296
Reducing the “nitrogen glut”......Page 297
Rivers, lakes, and coastlines......Page 298
Reducing China’s water pollution......Page 299
Internet resources......Page 301
10 Drinking-water pollution......Page 304
Primary drinking-water standards......Page 305
Pathogens......Page 307
Killing microbes in drinking water......Page 308
Alternative disinfectants......Page 309
Nitrate: a second threat to health......Page 310
Arsenic toxicity......Page 311
Nutrition......Page 312
Arsenic in wealthier countries......Page 313
Emerging drinking-water contaminants......Page 314
Maintaining drinking-water safety......Page 315
Other issues......Page 316
Clean water and human waste are closely intertwined......Page 318
“One of the biggest threats to human health”......Page 319
Polluted water and water scarcity......Page 320
Treating sewage as a valuable resource......Page 321
Ecological sanitation......Page 322
Point-of-use methods to purify drinking water......Page 323
The basics of POU......Page 325
Further reading......Page 326
Internet resources......Page 327
Why do we generate so much waste?......Page 329
Why does MSW concern us?......Page 331
Reducing MSW by waste prevention (P2 or source reduction)......Page 334
Reducing food waste......Page 335
Reuse of component parts of products – remanufacturing......Page 338
Recycling......Page 339
Composting and “bio-treatment”......Page 347
Promoting recycling......Page 349
Combustion, pros and cons......Page 354
Energy value of MSW......Page 356
Sanitary landfills......Page 357
Landfill siting......Page 358
Landfill mining......Page 359
Waste in less-developed countries......Page 361
A brighter picture: Curitiba Brazil......Page 363
Internet resources......Page 364
Characteristics......Page 366
Locations of hazardous waste sites......Page 368
Household hazardous waste (HHW)......Page 370
Recycling and reuse......Page 371
Disposal......Page 372
Evaluating a newly identified site......Page 374
How can exposure occur?......Page 375
Federal sites......Page 377
Cleanup......Page 378
Cleanup methods......Page 379
Bioremediation using microorganisms......Page 380
Bioremediation’s potential......Page 381
The Basel Convention......Page 382
Reducing hazardous waste generation......Page 383
Internet resources......Page 390
Overviewing world energy use......Page 392
Pollutants and problems......Page 395
Reducing air pollution from motor vehicles......Page 396
Methods used to reduce air pollution......Page 397
Low-emission and zero-emission vehicles......Page 398
Hydrogen fueled cars for zero emissions?......Page 399
Lowering emissions using biomass fuels?......Page 401
Electricity production and use......Page 402
Natural gas......Page 405
Becoming more energy conscious......Page 407
Conservation in industry......Page 408
Adopting clean-coal technology......Page 409
Electricity from nuclear power......Page 410
Coal versus nuclear......Page 411
Nuclear Fusion......Page 412
PV operations......Page 413
Solar, concentrated solar power......Page 415
Wind power......Page 416
Producing electricity from biomass......Page 417
Hydrogen......Page 419
Harnessing the ocean’s energy......Page 420
Promoting conservation......Page 421
The promise of micropower......Page 422
The future......Page 423
Further reading......Page 425
Internet resources......Page 426
Section I......Page 428
Bioaccumulation and biomagnification......Page 429
Reducing risk through information......Page 431
Screening chemicals before they are produced......Page 432
Exceptions to the treaty......Page 433
Three families of POPs......Page 434
Family one: the ubiquitous and long-lasting polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)......Page 435
A half-billion dollar risk-reduction project......Page 436
Family two: polybrominated fire retardants......Page 437
Reducing the risk of PBDEs......Page 438
Further reading......Page 440
Internet resources......Page 441
A metal primer......Page 443
Metals in soil and sediment......Page 444
Fossil fuel combustion......Page 447
Natural sources......Page 448
Human exposure......Page 449
Reducing metal risk......Page 450
Sources of lead......Page 452
Toxic effects......Page 453
Reducing lead’s risk......Page 454
Reducing the risk of lead already in the environment......Page 455
Mercury......Page 456
Products, processes, and end of life......Page 457
Mercury can move far from its emission point......Page 458
Exposure and toxic effects of mercury......Page 460
Reducing mercury’s risk......Page 463
Cadmium uses, sources, and movement......Page 466
Toxic effects......Page 467
Reducing risk in Australia......Page 468
Uses......Page 469
Sources of exposure and toxicity......Page 471
Internet resources......Page 472
What are pesticides?......Page 474
Types of pesticides......Page 477
Why are pesticides used?......Page 479
Pesticide movement......Page 481
Human and animal exposure......Page 482
Toxic effects......Page 484
Impacts on non-target species......Page 486
Humans – chronic effects......Page 487
Pest resistance......Page 488
Reducing risk through regulation......Page 489
Green chemistry......Page 490
Organic farming......Page 491
Techniques used by organic farmers and many IPM farmers......Page 492
Which mode of agriculture is sustainable?......Page 494
Improper use of pesticides......Page 495
Obsolete pesticides......Page 496
Reducing pesticide use......Page 497
Internet resources......Page 499
Indoor air pollution......Page 501
Reducing indoor air pollution......Page 504
Other sources of combustion pollutants......Page 505
Advice......Page 509
Moisture sources and remediation......Page 510
Sources and remediation......Page 511
Radon......Page 512
In water......Page 515
The problems......Page 517
Hazardous household products......Page 518
Toxic products......Page 519
Labeling laws......Page 520
Read the label......Page 521
Alternatives......Page 522
Lead......Page 523
Household hazardous waste......Page 524
Pesticides......Page 525
Internet resources......Page 527
18 Zero waste, zero emissions......Page 529
Waste and emissions......Page 530
Is it possible to use resources ten times more efficiently?......Page 533
Tools for dematerialization, moving toward a zero-waste society......Page 534
LCA can be very complex......Page 535
Design for the environment......Page 537
European and Japanese take-back laws......Page 539
Servicizing chemicals......Page 540
Green chemistry: designing chemicals for the environment......Page 541
Change the chemical product......Page 542
Reduce the waste associated with making chemicals......Page 543
Using natural systems – microorganisms......Page 544
Using agricultural and other biological by-products......Page 545
Using biochemicals and biopolymers does not eliminate all problems......Page 546
Progress toward zero waste......Page 547
Corporations committing to zero waste and sustainability......Page 549
Cities......Page 551
Countries embracing or actively moving toward zero waste......Page 552
The Environmental Performance Index......Page 553
Further reading......Page 554
Internet resources......Page 555
Atoms......Page 557
Isotopes......Page 560
Covalent bonds......Page 563
Molecular mass (molecular weight)......Page 565
Organic chemicals......Page 566
Inorganic chemicals......Page 567
The hydroxyl radical as a solution......Page 568
The hydroxyl radical as a problem......Page 569
Oxidation reactions......Page 570
Oxidation reactions of nitrogen and sulfur when burning gasoline......Page 571
Oxidation of hydrocarbons in gasoline......Page 572
Acids......Page 574
Sulfuric acid......Page 575
Ocean acidification......Page 576
The consequence of increased hydrogen ions in the ocean......Page 577
Internet resources......Page 578
Index......Page 580