Ultrasound Physics and Instrumentation

Chapter 1 Mathematics
	Ultrasound Physics and Instrumentation 5th Edition
	Chapter 1Mathematics
		1. How Difficult Can It Be?
		2. How Much Math Will You Need?
		3. Assessment Exam
		4. Assessment Exam Answers
Chapter 2 Waves
	Chapter 2Waves
		Introduction
		1. The Motivation for Studying Waves
		2. Waves
			2.1 Definition of a Wave
			2.2 Examples of Waves
		3. Classification of Waves
			3.1 Benefit to Classifications
			3.2 Electromagnetic (EM) Waves
			3.3 Mechanical Waves
		4. Conceptual Questions
		5. Propagation of Mechanical Waves
			5.1 Transverse Waves
			5.2 Longitudinal Waves
			5.3 Problems with Static Drawings of Waves
		6. Variations in the Medium with PropagationAcoustic Variables)
			6.1 Pressure
			6.2 Density
			6.3 Temperature
			6.4 Particle Motion
		7. Conceptual Questions
		8. Wave Characteristics and Parameters
			8.1 General
			8.2 Four Basic Parameters and the Many AssociatedParameters
			8.3 Frequency (/) and Period (P)
			8.4 Propagation Velocity
			8.5 Wavelength
			8.6 Amplitude
		9. Addition of Waves
			9.1 Constructive Interference (In Phase Waves)
			9.2 Destructive Interference (Out of Phase Waves)
			9.3 Partial Constructive (or Partially Destructive)Interference
		10. Exercises and Conceptual Questions
		11. Relating Wave Characteristics to Applicationand Relevance in Diagnostic Ultrasound
		12. Wave Characteristics and Parameters
			12.1 Frequencyand Period
			12.2 The General Term Frequency
			12.3 Propagation Velocity
			12.4 Wavelength
			12.5 Amplitude
		13. Decibels (dB)
			13.1 The Need for Decibels
			13.2 The Definition of Decibels
			13.3 The Equation for Decibels
			13.4 Applying the Equation for Decibels
			13.5 The Amplitude Form of the Decibel Equation
			13.6 Why Two Forms and When to Use Which Form
			13.7 Exercises
		14. Comparing Frequency with Amplitude
			14.1 Frequency and Amplitude are Disjoint
			14.2 Graphical Representation
			14.3 Exercises and Conceptual Questions
		CHAPTER SUMMARY : WAVES
Chapter 3 Attenuation
	Chapter 3Attenuation
		1. Attenuation
		2. Absorption
			2.1 Absorption and Viscosity
			2.2 Absorption and Frequency Dependence
		3. Reflection
			3.1 Geometric Aspects of Reflection
			3.2 Acoustic Aspects of Reflection
		4. Refraction
			4.1 Refraction Defined
			4.2 Visualizing Refraction
			4.3 Oblique Incidence but No Change in PropagationVelocities
			4.4 Normal Incidence (Incident angle = 0 degrees)
			4.5 Snell’s Law
			4.6 The Critical Angle
		5. Conceptual Questions
		6. Ultrasound Terminology
			6.1 Echogenicity
			6.2 Uniformity
			6.3 Plaque Surface Characteristics
		7. Attenuation Rates
			7.1 Table of Attenuation Rates
			7.2 Calculating Approximate Attenuation
			7.3 Interpreting Calculated Attenuation
		8. Absorption in the Body
			8.1 In Soft Tissue, Absorption is the Dominant FactorCreating Attenuation
			8.2 Absorption Increases Exponentially with IncreasingFrequency
			8.3 Fluids and Absorption
		9. Reflection in the Body Based on Geometric Conditions
			9.1 Specular Reflection
			9.2 Scattering in the Body
			9.3 Rayleigh Scattering
			9.4 Reflection in the Body Based on Acoustic Aspects
				9.4.1 The Acoustic Impedance Mismatch
		10. Refraction in the Body
			10.1 Effects of Refraction
			10.2 The Critical Angle and Refractive Shadowing
			10.3 Applying Snell’s Law
			10.4 Important Points about Refraction
		11. Exercises and Conceptual Questions
		12. Review of Attenuation
		13. Table of Acoustic Values
		14. Reflection and Transmission Percentage for non-normal Incidence
		15. Matching Layer
		16. Two Matching Layers
		17. Determining the Maximum Imaging Depthfrom the Dynamic Range
		CHAPTER SUMMARY : ATTENUATION
Chapter 4 Pulsed Wave Operation
	Chapter 4Pulsed Wave Operation
		Introduction
		1. Motivation for Using Pulsed Wave (PW)
			1.1 Range Ambiguity and Continuous Wave (CW)
			1.2 Range Specificity and Very Short Pulse
			1.3 Range Specificityand Longer Pulse Pulsed Wave (PW)
			1.4 Range Ambiguity and a Longer Pulse
		2. Pulsed Wave Definitions
			2.1 Time Related Pulsed Wave Definitions
			2.2 Distance Related Pulsed Wave Definitioins
		3. Relating Wave Parameters and Pulsed Wave(PW) Parameters
			3.1 The Difference Between a Wave Parameter and a PWParameter
			3.2 Time Related Wave Parameters and PW Parameters
			3.3 Distance Related Pulsed Wave Definitions
		4. The Foundational Drawing for Pulsed Wave
		5. Pulsed Wave and the Need to UnderstandTiming
		6. Definitions for Pulse Wave Related ImagingParameters
		7. Scanned and Non-Scanned Modalities
			7.1 Scanned Modalities
			7.2 Non-scanned Modalities
		8. Relating PW Parameters to Ultrasound
			8.1 The Pulse Duration
			8.2 The Pulse Repetition Period and the PRF
			8.3 The Spatial Pulse Length
			8.4 Using the PRP (Line Time) to Calculate the FrameTime (and Frame Rate)
			8.5 Comparing Temporal Resolution for Scanned andNon-Scanned Modalities
		9. Color Doppler, Frame Rate, and TemporalResolution
			9.1 General
			9.2 Creating a Color Scan
			9.3 Calculating the Color and Overall Frame Rate
			9.4 Color and Poor Temporal Resolution
			9.5 Choosing a Packet Size, the Trade-Off
		10. Optimizing Frame Rate and TemporalResolution
		11. Typical Values and Ranges for Wave, PW and Frame Parameters
		12. The Foundational Drawing for Pulse Wave Revisited
		13. Exercises
		14. Bandwidth
			14.1 Bandwidth Defined
			14.2 Pictorial Representation of Bandwidth
			14.3 Bandwidth Calculation
			14.4 Fractional Bandwidth
			14.5 Quality Factor
			14.6 The Value of Greater Bandwidth
		15. Pulse Duration (Width) vs. Bandwidth
			15.1 The Reciprocal Relationship
			15.2 The Meaning of the Operating Frequency and Bandwidth Relationship
		16. Conceptual Questions
		CHAPTER SUMMARY : PULSED WAVE OPERATION
Chapter 5 Transducers
	Chapter 5Transducers
		Introduction
		1.Transducer Basics
			1.1 Transducers Defined
			1.2 Examples of Transducers
			1.3 Ultrasound Transducers and Bi-directionality
		2. Ultrasound Transducersand the PiezoelectricEffect
			2.1 The Piezoelectric Effect
			2.2 The Piezoelectric Mechanism
			2.3 Natural Piezoelectric Materials
			2.4 Manufactured Piezoelectric Materials
			2.5 Poling
			2.6 Curie Point
		3. Frequency of Operation and Crystal Dimension
			3.1 Pulse Wave
			3.2 Continuous Wave
		4. Impulse Response of a Transducer
		5. Beam Characteristics with a Simple, Single Disc Transducer
			5.1 Simple, Single, Disc Transducers
			5.2 The Beam Parameters
			5.3 The Natural Focus
			5.4 Varying the depth of the Natural Focus
		6. Limitations of the Simple Crystal
		7. Minimizing the Acoustic ImpedanceMismatch
			7.1 High Impedance Piezoceramics
			7.2 Matching Layer
			7.3 Quarter Wavelength Thickness
			7.4 Compositeswith Lower Acoustic Impedances
		8. Detail Resolution
			8.1 General
			8.2 Axial Resolution
			8.3 Lateral Resolution
			8.4 Elevation Resolution
		9. Simple Block Diagram Model of aTransducer
		10. Exercises
		11. Beam Dimensions Revisited
			11.1 Depth of Focus (Focal depth) and Equation
			11.2 Depth of Field (Focal Region)
			11.3 True Beam Shapes
			11.4 Changing Intensity from Beam Convergence andDivergence
		12. Transducer Evolution Overview
		13. Imaging Dimensions
		14. The Pedof (Blind, Doppler OnlyTransducer)
		15. Sequencing
		16. Linear Switched Array
		17. Mechanically Steered
		18. Mechanical Annular Array
		19. Electronic Steering
			19.1 Understanding the Term Phase
			19.2 Electronic Steering for Transmit
			19.3 Electronic Steering for Receive
			19.4 Electronic Focusing for Transmit
			19.5 Electronic Focusing for Receive
			19.6 Focusing and Steering Together
		20. 1-D Phased Array Sector
		21. 1-D Linear Phased Array
		22. 1-D Curved Linear Phased Array
		23. Plano Concave (Hanafy Lens)
			23.1 1-D Arrays and Sub-optimal Elevation Control
			23.2 Hanafy Lens
		24. Multi-dimensional Arrays
			24.1 1.5-D Arrays
			24.2 2D Arrays
		25. Piezocomposite Materials
		26. Imaging Planes and Detail Resolution
			26.1 Lateral Resolution
			26.2 Elevation Resolution
			26.3 Axial Resolution
		27. Important Concepts for Transducers
		28. Exercises and Conceptual Questions
		29. The Piezoelectric Effect
			29.1 Use of Piezoelectric Materials
			29.2 Crystal Structures
			29.3 Intermolecular Bonds
			29.4 Polarization
		30. Newer Technologies
			30.1 New Crystal Growth Technology
			30.2 Capacitor Micromachined Ultrasound Transducer(CMUT)
		CHAPTER SUMMARY : TRANSDUCERS
Chapter 6 System Operation
	Chapter 6System Operation
		Introduction
		1. The Basic Processes of Real-Time Imaging
		2. Important System Definitions
			2.1 Transmit Power
			2.2 Dynamic Range
			2.3 Signals, Noise, and Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR
			2.4 Preprocessing and Post Processing
		3. Analog to Digital (A/D) Conversion
			3.1 Nyquist Criteria
		4. Basic Functions of a System (Simplified)
			4.1 Putting the Pieces Together
		5. Transmitter (Pulser - Transmit Beamformer)
			5.1 Function
			5.2 The System Control for Transmit Power
			5.3 Practical Concerns
		6. Receiver
			6.1 Amplification (Receiver Gain)
			6.2 Compensation (Time Gain Compensation)i
			6.3 Compression
			6.4 Demodulation
			6.5 Reject
		7. A-mode (Amplitude mode)
			7.1 A-mode Display
			7.2 Interpreting an A-mode
			7.3 The Use of A-mode
		8. Exercises
		9. System Block Diagram
		10. Controls that Affect Transmit andkser Distribution
			10.1 Transducer Frequency and Transmit Power
			10.2 Imaging Modalities, Image Size and Transmit Power
			10.3 Imaging Depth and Transmit Power
			10.4 Focus and Transmit Power
		11. TGC and Gain Revisited
			11.1 Internal TGC Profiles
			11.2 Intemal Color TGC Profiles
			11.3 \"Pre-compensated” TGC Profiles
			11.4 TGCs and Imaging Scenarios
			11.5 Appropriate Use of Receiver Gain with TGCs
		12. Analog to Digital Conversion
			12.1 Front End and Back End of an Ultrasound System
			12.2 Role of the Beamformer
			12.3 Analog Received Signal and Digital Output to Back End
			12.4 The Motivation for Converting from Analog to Digital
		13. Scan Conversion
			13.1 Paradigm Shift: From A-mode to B-mode
			13.2 Creating a B-mode From an A-mode
			13.3 The Role of the Scan Converter
			13.4 Polar Scan Conversion and Tateral Distortion
			13.5 Inconsistent Terminology in the Field
		14. Preprocessing and Post Processing Revisited
			14.1 Understanding the Difference
		15. Compression
			15.1 Compression: A Multi-Stage Process
			15.2 Dynamic Range of 2D Echoes
			15.3 Dynamic Range of the Human Eye
			15.4 Why the System Allows for Compression in the Back End of the System
			15.5 Compression Controls on the System
			15.6 Using Compression Controls Correctly
		16. Tissue Colorization
		17. Measurements
			17.1 Area Measurements
		18. Video Display and Monitors
			18.1 CRT
			18.2 Monitor Formats and “ Standards”
			18.3 Non-Interlaced Monitors
			18.4 Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD)
			18.5 LCD Advantages and Disadvantages:
			18.6 Subdividing Horizontal Lines into Pixels
			18.7 Relating Brightness Levels to Binary
			18.8 Brightness Levels and Ambient Light
		19. Data Storage Devices (External)
			19.1 Disadvantages of Analog Storage Devices
			19.2 VHS and SVHS (VCR)
			19.3 Disadvantages of Digital Storage Devices
		20. Data Storage (Internal)
			20.1 Cine (Cineloop) Review
			20.2 Purposes for Cine Review
			20.3 The Recording Length of a Cine Memory
		21. Zoom (Res Mode, Magnification)
			21.1 Acoustic Versus Non-acoustic
			21.2 Non-acoustic Zoom (Read Zoom)
			21.3 Acoustic Zoom (Write Zoom)
		22. Transmit and Focus Related Alternatives to Conventional B-mode Imaging
			22.1 Multiple Transmit Foci
			22.2 Parallel Processing
			22.3 Multiple Receive Beams Per Transmitted Beam
			22.4 How Parallel Processing Works
		23. Averaging Based Techniques
			23.1 Adding Signals
			23.2 (Spatial) Compound Imaging (Sono CT, Crossbeam)
			23.3 Image Persistence
			23.4 Spatial Averaging
			23.5 Frequency Compounding (Fusion):
		24. Ultrasound Modes
			24.1 Three-Dimensional (3D) and Four-Dimensional(4D) Imaging
			24.2 C-mode (Constant Depth Mode)
			24.3 M-mode (Motion Mode)
		25. Resolution Formally Revisited
			25.1 Detail Resolution
			25.2 Contrast Resolution
			25.3 Temporal Resolution
		26. Real-Time Imaging
		27. Panoramic Imaging (SieScape, LOGIQ View)
		28. Adaptive Processing (Auto Optimize, iSCANNTEQ)
		29. Exercises and Conceptual Questions
		30. Video Formats Revisited
			30.1 Comparing Line Resolution of Video Formats
			30.2 Issues with Analog Videotape
			30.3 Duplication and Conversion Between Formats
		31. Analog to Analog (Video Copying)
		32.AnalogDatatoDigitalDataIssues(Digitizing Videotape)
		33. Comparison of Digital Memory Devices
		34. Digital Formats and Compression
			34.1 Data Compression and Decompression (CODEC)
			34.2 Video Formats Versus CODEC
			34.3 Comparison of Video Formats
			34.4 A Partial List of CODEC
		35. Compression Algorithms and Technique
			35.1 Truncation
			35.2 Run Length Encoding (RLE)
			35.3 Indexing (Lookup Table)
			35.4 Spatial Interpolation
			35.5 Temporal Interpolation
			35.6 Mathematical Transforms
			35.7 Statistical Approaches
			35.8 Motion Detection
			35.9 Combining Algorithms
		36. Digital to Digital Format Conversion
			36.1 Multiple (Iterative) Compressions
			36.2 An “Idealized” Controlled Test
			36.3 A “ Closer to Real World” Controlled Test
		37. DICOM
		38. Analog Versus Digital Systems
		CHAPTER SUMMARY : SYSTEM OPERATION
Chapter 7 Doppler
	Chapter 7Doppler
	1. The Doppler Effect
	2. Relationships in the Doppler Equation
	3. A Simplified Doppler Equation
	4. Solving the Doppler Equation for Velocity
	5. Conceptual Questions
	6. Completing the Doppler Equation
	7. Doppler Shifts from Red Blood Cells
	8. Identifying the Doppler Angle (Insonification or Insonation Angle)
	9. Exercises
	10. Spectral Doppler System Operation
	11. The Processes Involved in Spectral Doppler
	12. Frequency vs. Amplitude
	13. PW vs. CW Comparison
	14. The Maximum Detectable Velocity
	15. The Presence of a Spectral Window
	16. PW Versus CW Comparison
	17. PW Range Ambiguity
	18. HPRF Doppler
	19. Doppler Insonification Angle and ErrorSources
	20. Color Flow
	21. Color Doppler Versus Spectral Doppler
	22. Overview of How Color Doppler isPerformed
	23. Time Correlated Color
	24. Color Gain
	25. Interpreting the Color Bar Relative to Spectral Doppler
	26. Color Invert and Aliasing
	27. Color Wall Filters
	28. Determining Flow Direction in ColorDoppler
	29. Color Persistence
	30. Color Priority
	31. Color Power Doppler
	32. Understanding the Behavior of Color Wall Filters
	33. Conceptual Questions
	CHAPTER SUMMARY : DOPPLER
Chapter 8 Artifacts
	Chapter 8Artifacts
	1. Categorizing Artifacts
	2. Detail Resolution
	3. “ Locational” Artifacts
	4. Attenuation Artifacts
	5. Phase Related Artifacts
	6. Doppler and Color Doppler Artifacts
	7. Color Doppler Dropout
	8. Conceptual Questions
	CHAPTER SUMMARY : ARTIFACTS
Chapter 9 Bioeffects
	Chapter 9Bioeffects
	1. Mechanisms of Bioeffects
	2. The Desire to Safeguard the Patient
	3. Research and Standards
	4. Power Measurements as a Basis for Gauging the Risk of Bioeffects
	5. Common Intensities
	6. The Significance of the Common Intensities
	7. Exercises
	8. Relating Risks of Bioeffects to Ultrasound Modes
	9. Acoustic Power Measurements
	10. Output Display Standards
	11. Mechanical Index (MI)
	12. Thermal Indices
	13. AIUM Statements Regarding Ultrasoundand Bioeffects
	14. Conceptual Questions
	15. Review Sheet for Converting Intensities
	16. Hydrophones
	CHAPTER SUMMARY : BIOEFFECTS
Chapter 10 Contrast and Harmonics
	Chapter 10Contrast and Harmonics
	1. Motivation for Contrast Imaging
	2. Fundamentals of Harmonics
	3. Technology Advances
	4. Relative Amplitudes
	5. Generation of Harmonics
	6.AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofConventionalHarmonics
	7. Pulse or Phase Inversion
	8. Current Uses of Contrast Imaging
	9. Properties of Contrast
	10. The Mechanical Index (MI)
	11. Transmit Focus
	12. Contrast Specific Detection Techniques
	13. Challenges at High MI: Triggered Acquisition
	14. Low MI Techniques
	15. Challenges at Low Mis: Signal-to-Noise
	16. The Future
	CHAPTER SUMMARY : CONTRAST AND HARMONICS
Chapter 11 Quality Assurance
	Chapter 11Quality Assurance
	1. Laboratory Accreditation
	2. Transducer Care
	3. Equipment Testing
	4. 2D and Doppler Testing
	5. Doppler Testing and Phantoms
	6. Imaging Phantoms and Test Objects
	7. Commercially Available Imaging Phantoms
	8. Conceptual Questions
	9. Quality Assurance Statistics
	10. Q&A Statistics
	11. Making Statistical Indices More Intuitive
	12. Building the Table of Data
	13. Exercises: Interpreting the Statistical Table
	14. Statistical Parameters
	15. Numerical Example
	16. Real World Understanding
	17. Exercises: Statistical Indices
	CHAPTER SUMMARY : QUALITY ASSURANCE
Chapter 12 Fluid Dynamics
	Chapter 12Fluid Dynamics
	1. Flow Analogy
	2. Fluid Dynamics
	3. Derivation of Equations
	4. Bernoulli’s Equation and Energy
	5. Basics of Flow and Flow Diagrams
	6. Reynold s Number and Turbulence
	7. Exercises
	CHAPTER SUMMARY : FLUID DYNAMICS
Chapter 13 Hemodynamics
	Chapter 13Hemodynamics
	1. Removing Some of the Simplifications
	2. The Assumption: Rigid Flow Conduits
	3. Pressure, Flow, and Resistance in theCardiovascular System (The Simplified Law)
	4. The Healthy Cardiovascular System as a Whole
	5. The Subcritical Diseased Cardiovascular Svstem at Rest
	6. Spectral Doppler as a Means of AssessingHemodynamics
	7. Flow Visualization
	CHAPTER SUMMARY : HEMODYNAMICS
Chapter 14 Muskuloskeletal Ultrasound
	Chapter 14Musculoskeletal Ultrasound
	1 . History and Background
	2. Structure
	3. Ultrasound System Parameters
	4. Tissue Imaging Characteristics
	5. Tissue Signatures
	6. Artifacts
	Summary
Chapter 15 Focused Ultrasound
	Chapter 15Focused Ultrasound
	1. Focused Ultrasound (General)
	2. Principles of Operation Pertinent toFocused Ultrasound
	3. Guidance of Focused Ultrasound
	4. Clinical Indications
	5. Parameters of Technology Adoption
	6. Future Landscape for Focused Ultrasound
Chapter 16 Elasatography
	Chapter 16Elastography
	P Palpation and Tissue Stiffness
	2. History of Elastography
	3. Elastography Method Categorizations
	4. Static Elastography
	5. Elastogram Presentation
	6. Elastogram Quality
	7. Static Elastograms
	8. Dynamic Elastography Methods
Chapter 17 IMT Ultrasound Imaging
	Chapter 17IMT Ultrasound Imaging
	1. Carotid Artery Anatomy
	2. Acquiring the Images
	3. System Settings
Chapter 18 Speckle Tracking and Cardiac Strain
	Chapter 18Speckle Tracking and CardiacStrain
	1. Introduction and Definition of Strain and Strain Rate
	2. Measuring Strain: Cardiac Deformation Imaging Techniques
	3. Speckle and Speckle Tracking
	Conclusion
Chapter 19 Patient Care and Sonographer Safety
	Chapter 19 Patient Care and Sonographer Safety
	1. Safety Aspects of Patient Care
	2. Personal Aspects of Patient Care
	3. Sonographer Safety
	Summary
v. Appendix A Mathematics
w. Appendix B Answers to Chapter Exercises
x. Appendix C Glossery
y. Appendix D Index
z. Appendix E Abbreviations