Ultrasonography in Dentomaxillofacial Diagnostics

Foreword
Preface
Contents
About the Editor
1: Introduction to Ultrasonography in Dentomaxillofacial Imaging
	1.1	 Introduction
	1.2	 What Does the Clinician Need in Terms of USG Imaging in Dentomaxillofacial Diagnostics?
	1.3	 Conclusion
	References
2: Anatomy for USG Application in Head and Neck
	2.1	 Introduction
		2.1.1	 The Skeleton of the Head and Neck
			2.1.1.1	 Temporomandibular Joint
		2.1.2	 Muscles and Fasciae of the Head and Neck
		2.1.3	 Nerves of the Head and Neck
			2.1.3.1	 Cranial Nerves
			2.1.3.2	 Spinal Nerves
			2.1.3.3	 Autonomic Nerves
		2.1.4	 Blood Vessels of the Head and Neck
		2.1.5	 Lymphatic System of the Head and Neck
		2.1.6	 Oral Cavity
			2.1.6.1	 Oral Vestibule
				Lips
				Cheeks—Buccae
				Gums
				Blood Supply and Innervation of the Oral Vestibule
			2.1.6.2	 Oral Cavity Proper
				Palate
				Sublingual Region
				Tongue
				Glands of the Oral Cavity
					Parotid Gland
					Submandibular Gland
					Sublingual Gland
		2.1.7	 Nasal Cavity
			2.1.7.1	 External Nose
			2.1.7.2	 Nasal Cavity Proper
				Communication of the Nasal Cavity
				Mucosa of the Nasal Cavity
				Blood Supply and Innervation of the Nasal Cavity
				Paranasal Sinuses
		2.1.8	 Larynx and Other Neck Organs
		2.1.9	 Summary
	References
3: General Considerations for Ultrasound Applications in Head and Neck
	3.1	 Basics of Ultrasonography
	3.2	 Ultrasound Probes
	3.3	 Ultrasound Examination
	3.4	 Advantages and Disadvantages of Ultrasound Scanning
	3.5	 Indications and Contraindications for Ultrasound
	References
4: Physical Principles of Doppler and Color Doppler Ultrasound
	4.1	 The Doppler Effect
	4.2	 Applications of the Doppler Shift in Diagnostic Imaging
	4.3	 Indications for Doppler Examinations in the Head and Neck Region
	4.4	 Limitations of Doppler Examinations
	4.5	 Ultrasound Contrast Agents
	References
5: Advanced Ultrasonography Imaging
	5.1	 Introduction
	5.2	 Panoramic Imaging
	5.3	 Tissue Harmonic Imaging
	5.4	 Real-Time Spatial Compound Imaging
	5.5	 Chromatic Imaging
	5.6	 Volumetric Ultrasound (Three-Dimensional (3D) and Four-Dimensional (4D) Ultrasound Imaging)
	5.7	 Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound Imaging
	5.8	 Elastography
		5.8.1	 Strain Elastography
		5.8.2	 Shear Wave Elastography
			5.8.2.1	 Transient Elastography
			5.8.2.2	 Point Shear Wave Elastography
			5.8.2.3	 Multidimensional Shear Wave Elastography (2D-SWE and 3D-SWE)
	5.9	 Portable Ultrasound Systems
	References
6: Sonographic Anatomy and Pathology: Cervical Lymph Nodes
	6.1	 Introduction
		6.1.1	 Basic Anatomy
		6.1.2	 Regional and Functional Classification of Lymph Nodes
	6.2	 Cervical Lymph Nodes Pathology
		6.2.1	 Pathological Swelling of Lymph Nodes Criteria
		6.2.2	 Ultrasonographic Criteria of Lymph Nodes Pathology
	References
7: Sonographic Anatomy and Pathology Extracranial Nerves
	7.1	 General Sonographic Anatomy
	7.2	 Inflammatory Changes
	7.3	 Benign Tumors
		7.3.1	 Paragangliomas
		7.3.2	 Neuromas
	7.4	 Malignant Tumors
	References
8: Sonographic Anatomy and Pathology Floor of the Mouth
	8.1	 General Anatomy and Ultrasonographic Features
	8.2	 Inflammatory Changes
		8.2.1	 Ranulas
	8.3	 Benign Tumors
		8.3.1	 Branchial Cysts
		8.3.2	 Thyroglossal Duct Cysts and Fistulas
		8.3.3	 Dermoid and Epidermoid Cysts
		8.3.4	 Other Benign Tumors
	8.4	 Malignant Tumors
	References
9: Sonographic Anatomy and Pathology Salivary Glands
	9.1	 Introduction
		9.1.1	 General Sonographic Anatomy
		9.1.2	 The Parotid Gland
		9.1.3	 The Submandibular Gland
	9.2	 Inflammatory Disease
		9.2.1	 Parotitis
		9.2.2	 Other Inflammatory Conditions
		9.2.3	 Inflammation from Drainage Failure Due to Calcification (Salivary Stone or Sialolithiasis)
	9.3	 Sjögren’s Syndrome
	9.4	 Neoplasms
		9.4.1	 Benign Tumors
			9.4.1.1	 Pleomorphic Adenomas
			9.4.1.2	 Warthin’s Tumor
		9.4.2	 Malignant Tumors
			9.4.2.1	 Mucoepidermoid Carcinoma
		9.4.3	 Other Masses
	9.5	 Vascular Masses
	9.6	 Salivary Gland Elastography
	References
10: Sonographic Anatomy and Pathology: Temporomandibular Joint
	10.1	 General Consideration for Application of Ultrasound in TMJ Diagnostics
	10.2	 Indications and Contraindications for TMJ Ultrasound
	10.3	 Normal Anatomy of TMJ in Ultrasound
	10.4	 Ultrasonography-Guided Invasive Procedures
		10.4.1 Fine-Needle Aspiration Biopsy
		10.4.2 Ultrasonography-Guided Fine Needle Aspiration Biopsy
		10.4.3 Core Biopsy
		10.4.4 Ultrasonography-Guided Core Biopsy
		10.4.5 Intraarticular Sodium Hyaluronate Injection
		10.4.6 Ultrasonography-Guided Sodium Hyaluronate Injection
		10.4.7 Arthrocentesis
		10.4.8 Ultrasonography-Guided Arthrocentesis
		10.4.9 Intramasseteric Botulinum Toxin Injections for Bruxism
		10.4.10 Ultrasonography-Guided Intramasseteric Botulinum Toxin Injections
	10.5	 The Use of Ultrasonography in Combination with Electromyography and Joint Vibration Analysis
	References
11: Sonographic Anatomy and Pathology: Facial Soft Tissues Including Muscles
	11.1	 Anatomy
		11.1.1	 Parotid Gland
		11.1.2	 Muscles
		11.1.3	 Lips
		11.1.4	 Masseter Muscle
		11.1.5	 Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ)
	11.2	 Diseases of Facial Soft Tissues and Muscles: Brief Review of Typical USG Aspect of the Most Frequently Encountered Pathologies
		11.2.1	 Inflammatory Changes
			11.2.1.1	 Furuncle
			11.2.1.2	 Abscess
			11.2.1.3	 Myositis
			11.2.1.4	 Mastoiditis
			11.2.1.5	 Preauricular Sinus
			11.2.1.6	 Sialadenitis
	11.3	 Benign Lesions: Cysts, Cyst like Lesions, and Tumors
		11.3.1	 Mucocele and Ranula
		11.3.2	 Dermoid and Epidermoid Cyst
		11.3.3	 Branchial Cleft Cyst
	11.4	 Vascular Lesions
		11.4.1	 Hematoma
		11.4.2	 Hemangioma
		11.4.3	 Vascular Malformations
	11.5	 Malignant Lesions
		11.5.1	 Metastasis
		11.5.2	 Lymphoma
		11.5.3	 Leukemia
	11.6	 Systemic Diseases
		11.6.1	 Sjogren’s Syndrome
	References
12: Sonographic Anatomy and Pathology: Paranasal Sinuses and Midface
	12.1	 Anatomy
	12.2	 Diseases of Paranasal Sinuses and Midface: A Brief Review of Typical USG Aspect of the Most Frequently Encountered Pathologies
		12.2.1	 Inflammatory Changes
			12.2.1.1	 Sinusitis
	12.3	 Benign Lesions
		12.3.1	 Paranasal Sinuses
		12.3.2	 Midface
			12.3.2.1	 Pilomatrixoma
			12.3.2.2	 Lipoma
	12.4	 Malignant Lesions
		12.4.1	 Image Interpretation Pearls
	12.5	 Trauma
		12.5.1	 USG Use in Nasal Bone Fractures
		12.5.2	 USG Use in Zygomatic Arc Fractures
		12.5.3	 USG Use in Orbital Floor Fractures
	12.6	 Foreign Bodies
	References
13: Ultra-High Frequency Ultrasound in Oral and Maxillofacial Imaging
	13.1	 Introduction
	13.2	 Principles of UHFUS Imaging
	13.3	 Components of Image Production
		13.3.1 Performance of Intraoral UHFUS Scan
		13.3.2 Setting Image Acquisition Parameters
		13.3.3 Strengths and Limitations
			13.3.3.1	 Size and Cost
			13.3.3.2	 Fast Acquisition
			13.3.3.3	 Submillimeter Resolution
	13.4	 Normal Anatomy
		13.4.1 Buccal Mucosa
		13.4.2 Tongue
		13.4.3 Lips
		13.4.4 Gingiva
		13.4.5 Palate
		13.4.6 Mouth Floor
	13.5	 Oral Diseases: A Brief Review of Typical UHFUS Aspect of the Most Frequently Encountered Oral Lesions
		13.5.1 Melanocytic Nevus
		13.5.2 Migratory Glossitis
		13.5.3 Hemangioma
		13.5.4 Fibrous Hyperplasia
		13.5.5 Lipoma
		13.5.6 HPV-Papilloma
		13.5.7 Pyogenic Granuloma
		13.5.8 Salivary Retention/Extravasation Cysts
		13.5.9 Salivary Ranula
		13.5.10 Sjögren’s Syndrome
		13.5.11 Oral Lichen Planus
		13.5.12 Leukoplakia
		13.5.13 Erythroplakia
		13.5.14 Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma
	13.6	 Patient Protection
		13.6.1 ALARA Principle
	References
14: Ultrasonographic Imaging in Periodontology
	14.1	 Periodontium
		14.1.1	 Gingiva
			14.1.1.1	 Anatomy of Gingiva
				Free Gingiva
				The Attached Gingiva
				The Interdental Gingiva
				The Gingival Sulcus
				The Gingival Fluid
		14.1.2	 Periodontal Ligament
			14.1.2.1	 Periodontal Ligament Cells
			14.1.2.2	 Extracellular Matrix of Periodontal Ligament (ECM)
		14.1.3	 Cementum
			14.1.3.1	 Cementoenamel Junction
			14.1.3.2	 Cementum Resorption
		14.1.4	 Alveolar Process
			14.1.4.1	 Anatomy of Alveolar Process
				Periosteum-Endosteum
				Remodeling
				Resorption
	14.2	 Periodontal Diagnosis and Prognosis
		14.2.1	 Classification of Periodontal and Peri-implant Diseases and Conditions
			14.2.1.1	 Classification of Periodontal and Peri-Implant Diseases and Conditions-2017
		14.2.2 Definition and Etiology of Periodontal Diseases
			14.2.2.1	 Plaque-Induced Gingivitis
			14.2.2.2	 Periodontitis
			14.2.2.3	 Etiology of Periodontal Diseases
				Alveolar Bone Loss
				Furcations
				Abscesses of Periodontium
		14.2.3	 Bony Defects of Periodontium
			14.2.3.1	 The Pattern of Bone Loss
			14.2.3.2	 Bony Defects
	14.3	 Periodontal Radiology
		14.3.1	 Intraoral Radiographs (Periapical, Bitewing, Occlusal Radiographs)
		14.3.2	 Orthopantomograph (Panoramic Radiograph/OPG)
		14.3.3	 Cone-Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT)
		14.3.4	 Ultrasonographic Imaging in Periodontology
			14.3.4.1	 Advantages of Ultrasonographic Imaging
			14.3.4.2	 Ultrasonographic Imaging in Periodontology
	References
15: USG Imaging in Orthodontics
	15.1	 Introduction
	15.2	 Evaluation of the Muscles of Mastication
		15.2.1	 Masseter
		15.2.2	 Temporalis
		15.2.3	 Other Muscles of the Stomatognathic System
	15.3	 Analysis of Tongue, Hyoid, and Swallowing
		15.3.1	 Tongue Volume
		15.3.2	 Tongue Posture
		15.3.3	 Tongue Movement
		15.3.4	 Hyoid Bone Displacement
	15.4	 Evaluation of the Airway
	15.5	 The Temporomandibular Joint Evaluation
	15.6	 Determination of Soft Tissue Thickness at Orthodontic Miniscrew Placement Sites
	15.7	 Determining Pubertal Growth and Bone Age
	15.8	 Evaluation of the Midpalatal Suture
	15.9	 Ultrasonographic Evaluation of Periodontal Changes During Orthodontic Tooth Movement
	15.10	 Effect of Low-Intensity Pulsed Ultrasound (LIPUS) on Tooth Movement and Root Resorption
	References
16: Ultrasonography Imaging in Endodontics
	16.1	 Introduction
	16.2	 Acute Apical Periodontitis
	16.3	 Chronic Apical Periodontitis
	16.4	 Acute Apical Abscess
	16.5	 Chronic Apical Abscess
	References
17: Applications of Ultrasonography in Maxillofacial/Intraoral Inflammatory and Cystic Lesions
	17.1	 Inflammatory Odontogenic Cysts
		17.1.1	 Radicular Cyst
		17.1.2	 Inflammatory Collateral Cysts
	17.2	 Developmental Odontogenic Cysts
		17.2.1	 Dentigerous Cyst
		17.2.2	 Odontogenic Keratocyst
		17.2.3	 Lateral Periodontal Cyst and Botryoid Odontogenic Cyst
		17.2.4	 Gingival Cyst
		17.2.5	 Glandular Odontogenic Cyst
		17.2.6	 Calcifying Odontogenic Cyst
		17.2.7	 Orthokeratinized Odontogenic Cyst
	17.3	 Developmental Non-odontogenic Cysts and Cyst-Like Lesions
		17.3.1	 Nasopalatine Duct Cyst
		17.3.2	 Nasolabial Cyst
		17.3.3	 Dermoid Cyst
		17.3.4	 Ranula
		17.3.5	 Thyroglossal Duct Cyst
		17.3.6	 Branchial Cleft Cyst
	17.4	 Pseudo-Cysts of the Jaws
		17.4.1	 Stafne Bone Cavity
		17.4.2	 Aneurysmal Bone Cyst
		17.4.3	 Simple Bone Cavity
	References
18: Applications of Ultrasonography in Maxillofacial/Intraoral Benign and Malignant Tumors
	18.1	 Benign Tumors of Maxillofacial Region
		18.1.1	 Epithelial Odontogenic Tumors
			18.1.1.1	 Ameloblastoma
			18.1.1.2	 Squamous Odontogenic Tumor
			18.1.1.3	 Calcifying Epithelial Odontogenic Tumor
			18.1.1.4	 Adenomatoid Odontogenic Tumor
		18.1.2	 Mixed Odontogenic Tumors
			18.1.2.1	 Ameloblastic Fibroma
			18.1.2.2	 Primordial Odontogenic Tumor
			18.1.2.3	 Odontoma
			18.1.2.4	 Dentinogenic Ghost Cell Tumor
		18.1.3	 Mesenchymal Odontogenic Tumors
			18.1.3.1	 Odontogenic Fibroma
			18.1.3.2	 Odontogenic Myxoma/Myxofibroma
			18.1.3.3	 Cementoblastoma
			18.1.3.4	 Cemento-Ossifying Fibroma
		18.1.4	 Benign Maxillofacial Bone and Cartilage Tumors
			18.1.4.1	 Chondroma
			18.1.4.2	 Osteoma
			18.1.4.3	 Melanocytic Neuroectodermal Tumor of Infancy
			18.1.4.4	 Chondroblastoma
			18.1.4.5	 Chondromyxoid Fibroma
			18.1.4.6	 Osteoid Osteoma
			18.1.4.7	 Osteoblastoma
			18.1.4.8	 Desmoplastic Fibroma
		18.1.5	 Fibro-Osseous and Osteochondromatous Lesions
			18.1.5.1	 Ossifying Fibroma
			18.1.5.2	 Familial Gigantiform Cementoma
			18.1.5.3	 Fibrous Dysplasia
			18.1.5.4	 Cemento-Osseous Dysplasia
			18.1.5.5	 Osteochondroma
		18.1.6	 Giant Cell Lesions and Simple Bone Cyst
			18.1.6.1	 Central Giant Cell Granuloma
			18.1.6.2	 Peripheral Giant Cell Granuloma
			18.1.6.3	 Aneurysmal Bone Cyst
			18.1.6.4	 Simple Bone Cyst
			18.1.6.5	 Cherubism
		18.1.7	 Hematolymphoid Tumors
			18.1.7.1	 Solitary Plasmacytoma of Bone (SPB)
		18.1.8	 Other Benign Tumors of Maxillofacial Region
			18.1.8.1	 Hemangioma
			18.1.8.2	 Lipoma
			18.1.8.3	 Lymphangioma
			18.1.8.4	 Neurofibroma and Schwannoma
			18.1.8.5	 Pleomorphic Adenoma
			18.1.8.6	 Lobular Capillary Hemangioma (Pyogenic Granuloma)
	18.2	 Malign Tumors of Maxillofacial Region
		18.2.1	 Odontogenic Carcinomas
			18.2.1.1	 Ameloblastic Carcinoma
			18.2.1.2	 Primary Intraosseous Carcinoma (NOS)
			18.2.1.3	 Sclerosing Odontogenic Carcinoma
			18.2.1.4	 Clear Cell Odontogenic Carcinoma
			18.2.1.5	 Ghost Cell Odontogenic Carcinoma
		18.2.2	 Odontogenic Carcinosarcomas
		18.2.3	 Odontogenic Sarcomas
		18.2.4	 Malignant Maxillofacial Bone and Cartilage Tumors
			18.2.4.1	 Osteosarcoma
			18.2.4.2	 Chondrosarcoma
			18.2.4.3	 Mesenchymal Chondrosarcoma
		18.2.5	 Non-odontogenic Malign Tumors of Maxillofacial Region
			18.2.5.1	 Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma
			18.2.5.2	 Adenoid Cystic Carcinoma
			18.2.5.3	 Mucoepidermoid Carcinoma
			18.2.5.4	 Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
			18.2.5.5	 Malignant Melanoma
			18.2.5.6	 Multiple Myeloma
			18.2.5.7	 Metastatic Tumors
	18.3	 Pseudo-Tumors of Maxillofacial Regions
		18.3.1	 Masson’s Hemangioma (Intravascular Papillary Endothelial Hyperplasia)
		18.3.2	 Caliber Persistent Artery
		18.3.3	 Lymph Node Calcification
	References
19: The Thyroid Gland and Ultrasound Applications
	19.1	 Size of the Thyroid Gland
	19.2	 Thyroid Anomalies
		19.2.1	 Hemigenesis
		19.2.2	 Aberrant Thyroid
	19.3	 Masses in the Midline Level 6
		19.3.1	 Thyroglossal Duct Cyst
		19.3.2	 Lymph Nodes
		19.3.3	 Malignant Masses
		19.3.4	 Parathyroid Cyst
		19.3.5	 Parathyroid Adenoma
		19.3.6	 Parathyroid Carcinoma
	19.4	 Fourth Branchial Cleft Cyst/Cervical Thymic Cyst
	19.5	 Thyroiditis
	19.6	 Thyroid Nodules
	19.7	 US Characteristics of Thyroid Nodules: What to Look for and What to Include in Our US Thyroid Report
	References
		Recommended Reading List
20: Intervention with US
	20.1	 US-Guided Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology (FNAC)
	20.2	 Salivary Gland Intervention
	References
		Reading List
21: USG Imaging in Physiotherapy of Dentomaxillofacial Region
	21.1	 Introduction
	21.2	 Role of Physiotherapy (Applications) in Dentomaxillofacial Region Problems
	21.3	 USG Imaging Usage in Musculoskeletal System Structures
		21.3.1	 Technical Considerations and Limitations of Ultrasound Elastography
			21.3.1.1	 Technical Considerations and Limitations of Sonoelastography in Muscle–Tendon Evaluation
			21.3.1.2	 Technical Considerations and Limitations of Shear-Wave Elastography
	21.4	 USG Imaging of Masseter Muscle after Physiotherapy Applications
	References