Ultracapacitors : future of energy storage

Title
Contents
1. ELECTROCHEMICAL CAPACITOR
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 History
	1.3 Basic Principles of Ultracapacitors
	1.4 Principle and Energy Storage Mechanism
	1.5 EC vs. Aluminum (Al) Electrolytic Capacitors
	1.6 Capacitors vs. Batteries
	1.7 Benefi ts and Limitations of Ultracapacitors
	1.8 Ultracapacitors vs. Flywheels
	1.9 Applications
	1.10 Cell Voltage
	1.11 Comparison with Battery or Other Energy Storage Devices
	1.12 Cost of EC Capacitors
	1.13 Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitor—Basic Construction
	1.14 Components of an Ultracapacitor
	1.15 EC Capacitor Sizes
	1.16 Future of the Energy Storage Industry
	1.17 Uninterruptible Power Supply, Back-Up Power
2. TYPES OF ULTRACAPACITORS
	2.1 Basic Construction
	2.2 Comparison Chart
	2.3 Symmetric and Asymmetric Capacitors
	2.4 Types of Capacitors
3. ULTRACAPACITOR CHARACTERISTICS
	3.1 Characteristics of Interest
	3.2 Equivalent Circuit of Electrical Double-Layer Capacitors
	3.3 Equivalent Series Resistance
	3.4 Capacitance, Frequency Response and Measurement
	3.5 Simultaneous Measurement of Capacitance and ESR Values
	3.6 DC Leakage Current (DCL)
	3.7 Charge Characteristics
	3.8 Self-Discharge
	3.9 Factors to Consider in Selecting Optimum Specifi cations
	3.10 Ageing
	3.11 Cycle Life
	3.12 Power versus Energy: Law of Diminishing Returns
	3.13 An Ideal Power Buff er
	3.14 Low Leakage Current
	3.15 Ultracapacitor Performance
	3.16 Voltage Drop
	3.17 Life of Ultracapacitors
	3.18 Comparison with Diff erent Storage Technologies
4. ULTRACAPACITOR CHARGING
	4.1 Equivalent Capacitance of an Ultracapacitor Bank
	4.2 Size and Number of Cells to be Used in an Application
	4.3 Ultracapacitor Charging
	4.4 Ultracapacitor Charging-Power Electronics
	4.5 Buck Boost Converter
	4.6 Supercapacitor Charger Chips
	4.7 Special Solutions for Ultracapacitor Charging
5. ULTRACAPACITOR MATERIALS
	5.1 Basic Components of Ultracapacitor
	5.2 Electrode Materials
	5.3 Ultracapacitors of Diff erent Electrode Materials
	5.4 Electrolytes in Ultracapacitors
	5.5 Separators
	5.6 Binders
	5.7 Outer Container
	5.8 Current Collectors
	5.9 Summary
6. CONSTRUCTION OF EC CAPACITORS
	6.1 Basic Components
	6.2 Preparation of Activated Carbon Electrode
	6.3 Coiled Electric Double-Layer Capacitors Manufacturing Process
	6.4 Composition with Binders
	6.5 Creating the Slurry for Flat Plate Electrode
	6.6 Preparation of Electrode from Slurry for Stacked Capacitors
	6.7 Cell Preparation
	6.8 Activated Carbon
	6.9 Technologies for Making Electrodes
	6.10 Coin and Multilayer Electric Double-Layer Capacitors
	6.11 Flat Cells
	6.12 Construction of Prismatic Cell
	6.13 Sizes of Ultracapacitors
	6.14 Stacking Ultracapacitors
	6.15 Summary of Packaging Advantages and Disadvantages
7. ULTRACAPACITOR CELL BALANCING AND MODULES
	7.1 EDLC Cells and Modules
	7.2 Connecting Cells in Series
	7.3 Connecting Cells in Parallel
	7.4 Cell Balancing
	7.5 Balancing Methods
	7.6 Ultracapacitor Modules
	7.7 Ultracapacitor System Packaging
	7.8 Cell Balancing in Low Duty Cycle Applications
	7.9 Safety Provision in Modules
8. HYBRID CAPACITORS
	8.1 Hybrid Systems
	8.2 Hybrid Capacitor Principle
	8.3 Asymmetric Ultracapacitor Systems
	8.4 Tantalum Hybrid Capacitors
	8.5 Hybrid Electrolytic-Electrochemical Capacitors
	8.6 Applications
9. LI-ION CAPACITORS (LIC)
	9.1 Lithium Ion Capacitor in Today’s World
	9.2 Lithium Capacitor History
	9.3 Principle of the Lithium-Ion Capacitor
	9.4 Hybrid LIC Construction
	9.5 Features of Lithium Ion Capacitor Technology
	9.6 Applications
	9.7 Nanohybrid-High Performance Li-Ion Capacitor with CNT
	9.8 Future Prospects
10. APPLICATIONS IN ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY
	10.1 Ultracapacitors in Electronics
	10.2 Ultracapacitor as Battery Backup to Alkaline Batteries
	10.3 Power Robotic Systems
	10.4 Automatic Meter Readers (AMR)
	10.5 Consumer Electronics
	10.6 High Pulse Power Applications
	10.7 Managing Mobile Phone Audio Power
	10.8 Wireless Sensor Networks
	10.9 Long Life Storage Applications: Personal Emergency Equipment
	10.10 Commercial
	10.11 Automotive Applications
	10.12 Ultracapacitor Prospects in Consumer Electronics
	10.13 What Future Holds: Fast Charger Ultracapacitor to Extend Mobile Battery Life
	10.14 Guide to Ultracapacitor Design in an Application
11. GRID SYSTEM APPLICATIONS
	11.1 Modern Grid Systems
	11.2 Energy Storage for the Smart Grid
	11.3 Grid Stability and Supply Quality
	11.4 Ultracapacitor UPS
	11.5 Energy Supply System Considerations
	11.6 Ultracapacitors Benefi ts for Grid Storage
	11.7 Smart Grid and the “Green” Power Industry
	11.8 Cost-Eff ective Regulation
	11.9 Renewable Energy
	11.10 Renewables Ride-Th rough and Firming
	11.11 Wind Energy
	11.12 Ultracapacitors Powering New Wind Energy Markets
	11.13 Grid Requirements: Low Voltage Ride Th rough
	11.14 Power Conditioning
	11.15 Passive Devices on Wind Turbine Systems
	11.16 Photovoltaic (PV) Power
	11.17 Microgrid
	11.18 Th e Most Important Facts about Ultracapacitors
12. ULTRACAPACITORS IN VEHICLES
	12.1 Ultracapacitors in Vehicles
	12.2 Battery Backup
	12.3 Power
	12.4 Benefi ts and Limitations of Ultracapacitors
	12.5 Electric Cars (BEV)
	12.6 Power Train Solutions
	12.7 Automotive Hybrid Drives
	12.8 Boardnet Stabilization, Distributed Power Modules
	12.9 Ultracapacitor Modules for Cars
	12.10 Fuel Cell Vehicles
	12.11 Start-Stop Application
	12.12 Formula Zero Go Karts
	12.13 Regenerative Braking
	12.14 Ultracapacitors for Hybrid Military Vehicles
	12.15 Ultracapacitors in Two Wheelers
	12.16 Cold Starting / Jump-starting Solutions
	12.17 Car Audio Capacitors
	12.18 Voltage Stabilizer with 31 F EDLC
13. BUS AND RAIL TRANSPORT
	13.1 Ultracapacitors in Transport Industry
	13.2 Electric Buses
	13.3 Trains
	13.4 Energy Storage System (ESS)
	13.5 Trams
	13.6 Ultracapacitor Regenerative Power Solutions
	13.7 Energy Storage for Traction
	13.8 Forklifts
	13.9 Performance Data
	13.10 Fuel Cell Powered Forklifts
	13.11 Container Cranes
	13.12 Future Scope
14. ULTRABATTERY-ADVANCED BATTERY POWER
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 UltraBattery Research
	14.3 Charging / Discharging of UltraBattery
	14.4 Lower Emissions with Lower Costs
	14.5 Applications
	14.6 Way Forward
15. MILITARY APPLICATIONS
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Rail Gun
	15.3 Coil Gun
	15.4 Other Applications
	15.5 Space Applications
16. WATER DESALINATION
	16.1 Background
	16.2 Capacitive Deionization (CDI)
	16.3 Membrane Capacitive Deionization (MCDI )
	16.4 Capacitive Deionization Process (CDI)
	16.5 MCDI Process
	16.6 Desalination Performance of Various Carbon Electrodes
	16.7 Practical Applications
	16.8 Way Forward
17. ULTRACAPACITOR MANUFACTURERS
	17.1 Short History of EC Scenario
	17.2 Manufacturers Across World Today
	17.3 Review of Manufacturers
	17.4 Indian Scenario
	17.5 Future Prospects
18. PSEUDOCAPACITOR
	18.1 Pseudocapacitance
	18.2 Pseudocapacitors vs. Other Ultracapacitors
	18.3 Pseudocapacitor Materials
	18.4 Pseudocapacitor Mechanism
	18.5 Advantages and Limitations of Pseudocapacitors
	18.6 Metal Oxides
	18.7 Conducting Polymers
	18.8 Future of Pseudocapacitors
19. NOTES ON USING ULTRACAPACITORS
	19.1 Environment
	19.2 Storage
	19.3 Mounting
	19.4 Cleaning
	19.5 Mechanical Impact
	19.6 Circuit Considerations
	19.7 Interconnections
	19.8 Safety Issues
	19.9 Disposal
	19.10 Emergency Response
20. FUTURE SCENARIO
	20.1 Modern Day Applications of Ultracapacitors
	20.2 Future Application Growth
	20.3 New Material Developments
	20.4 Cost Reduction
	20.5 Ultracapacitors may Overtake Batteries
	20.6 Market Trends
	20.7 Ultracapacitors in the Grid
	20.8 Vehicular Applications
	20.9 Ultracapacitors for Wind Turbines
	20.10 Water Desalination / Purifi cation
	20.11 New Ultracapacitor Work at Constant Voltage
	20.12 Electrochemical Flow Ultracapacitor
	20.13 Micro Ultracapacitor
	20.14 Ultracapacitor for Resistance Welding
	20.15 Summary
Appendix 1 List of Ultracapacitor Manufacturers
Appendix 2 Electrochemical Capacitor Selector Worksheet
Appendix 3 Relation of Capacitance to Geometry and Diel. Const.
Appendix 4 Galvanic Series
Appendix 5 UN Document for EDLC Shipping
Appendix 6 UN Document: Asymmetrical Capacitor Defi nition
Appendix 7 Ultracapacitors for Two-Wheelers and Low-Capacity Cars
Glossary
References
Index
Author’s Profi le