Turkey Diseases and Disorders

Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: Viral Diseases
	1: Avian Influenza
		1.1	 Etiology
		1.2	 Influenza Pandemics
		1.3	 Evolution of Influenza Viruses
		1.4	 Subtypes and Pathotypes of Avian Influenza
		1.5	 Avian Influenza in Wild and Domestic Birds
			1.5.1	 Avian Influenza in Turkeys
		1.6	 Transmission and Source of Infection
		1.7	 Course of Infection
		1.8	 Clinical Signs
		1.9	 Postmortem Lesions
		1.10	 Diagnosis
			1.10.1	 Sampling
				1.10.1.1	 Laboratory Diagnosis
		1.11	 Prevention and Control
			1.11.1	 Pros and Contras Against the Need for Vaccination
				1.11.1.1	 Types of Vaccines
				1.11.1.2	 Vaccination Against Low-Pathogenic Avian Influenza
				1.11.1.3	 Considerations and Essential Components
		References
	2: Avian Paramyxoviruses
		2.1	 Classification of Paramyxoviruses
		2.2	 Avian Paramyxoviruses
		2.3	 Newcastle Disease: PMV-1
		2.4	 Yucaipa Disease: PMV-2
		2.5	 Wisconsin Disease: PMV-3
		2.6	 Avian Paramyxovirus Serotype-6 (APMV-6)
		2.7	 Avian Paramyxovirus Serotype-7 (APMV-7)
		References
	3: Newcastle Disease in Turkeys
		3.1	 Etiology
		3.2	 Pathotypes of NDV
		3.3	 Genotypes of NDV
		3.4	 Transmission
		3.5	 Clinical Signs
		3.6	 Gross Lesions
		3.7	 Diagnosis
		3.8	 Control Measures
		3.9	 Vaccination
			3.9.1	 Live Vaccines
			3.9.2	 Inactivated Vaccines
		3.10	 Conclusion
		References
	4: Avian Metapneumovirus
		4.1	 Etiology
		4.2	 History and Distribution
		4.3	 Virus Transmission
		4.4	 Clinical Signs and Postmortem Lesions
		4.5	 Diagnosis
		4.6	 Prevention and Control
		References
	5: Poxvirus Infection
		5.1	 Etiology
		5.2	 Transmission
		5.3	 Clinical Signs and Pathology
		5.4	 Diagnosis
		5.5	 Control
		References
	6: Haemorrhagic Enteritis (Siadenovirus)
		6.1	 Etiology
		6.2	 Clinical Signs
		6.3	 Postmortem Lesions
		6.4	 Histopathological Examination
		6.5	 Diagnosis
		6.6	 Prevention and Control
		References
	7: Turkey Arthritis Reovirus
		7.1	 Etiology
		7.2	 History and Epidemiology
		7.3	 Pathogenic Conditions Associated with Turkey Reovirus
			7.3.1	 Turkey Reovirus-Associated Poult Enteritis and Mortality Syndrome (PEMS) and Immunosuppression
			7.3.2	 Turkey Reovirus-Associated Arthritis/Tenosynovitis
			7.3.3	 Turkey Reovirus-Associated Myocarditis
		7.4	 Diagnosis
		7.5	 Vaccination
		References
	8: Avian Encephalomyelitis
		8.1	 Etiology
		8.2	 Epidemiology
		8.3	 Pathotypes
		8.4	 Clinical Signs
		8.5	 Postmortem Lesions
		8.6	 Histopathology
		8.7	 Diagnosis
		8.8	 Differential Diagnosis
		8.9	 Prevention and Control
		References
	9: Rotaviruses
		9.1	 Etiology
		9.2	 Epidemiology
		9.3	 Clinical Signs
		9.4	 Postmortem
		9.5	 Diagnosis
		9.6	 Prevention and Control
		References
	10: Turkey Coronavirus
		10.1	 Etiology
		10.2	 History and Distribution
		10.3	 Susceptibility
		10.4	 Transmission
		10.5	 Clinical Signs
		10.6	 Postmortem Lesions
		10.7	 Diagnosis
		10.8	 Treatment and Vaccination
		References
	11: Turkey Viral Hepatitis
		11.1	 Etiology
		11.2	 Susceptibility
		11.3	 Transmission
		11.4	 Incubation Period
		11.5	 Clinical Signs
		11.6	 Postmortem Lesions
		11.7	 Microscopic Examination
		11.8	 Diagnosis
		11.9	 Treatment and Control
		References
	12: Marek’s Disease
		12.1	 Introduction
		12.2	 Etiology
		12.3	 Transmission
		12.4	 Clinical Signs and Gross Lesions
		12.5	 Diagnosis
			12.5.1	 Diagnosis of the Disease
		12.6	 Treatment and Control
		References
	13: Reticuloendotheliosis and Lymphoproliferative Disease
		13.1	 Introduction
		13.2	 Reticuloendotheliosis
			13.2.1	 Etiology
			13.2.2	 Transmission
			13.2.3	 Clinical Signs and Gross Lesions
			13.2.4	 Diagnosis
			13.2.5	 Treatment and Control
		13.3	 Lymphoproliferative Disease
			13.3.1	 Etiology
			13.3.2	 Transmission
			13.3.3	 Clinical Signs and Gross Lesions
			13.3.4	 Diagnosis
			13.3.5	 Treatment and Control
		References
	14: Arbovirus Infection
		14.1	 Alphaviruses
			14.1.1	 Eastern Equine Encephalitis
				14.1.1.1	 Etiology
				14.1.1.2	 Epidemiology
				14.1.1.3	 Transmission
				14.1.1.4	 Clinical Signs and Lesions
				14.1.1.5	 Diagnosis
				14.1.1.6	 Vaccination
			14.1.2	 Western Equine Encephalitis (WEEV)
			14.1.3	 Highlands J Virus Infection (HJV)
		14.2	 Flaviviruses
			14.2.1	 Israel Turkey Meningoencephalitis
				14.2.1.1	 Etiology
				14.2.1.2	 Clinical Signs
				14.2.1.3	 Postmortem Lesions
				14.2.1.4	 Histopathology
				14.2.1.5	 Diagnosis
				14.2.1.6	 Vaccination
			14.2.2	 West Nile Virus (WNV)
				14.2.2.1	 Etiology
				14.2.2.2	 Reservoir
				14.2.2.3	 Clinical Signs and Lesions
				14.2.2.4	 Diagnosis
				14.2.2.5	 Vaccination
		References
Part II: Parasitic Diseases
	15: Parasitic Infections in Turkeys
		15.1	 Endoparasites
			15.1.1	 Sporozoea Affecting Turkeys
			15.1.2	 Coccidiosis (Eimeriosis)
				15.1.2.1	 Summary
				15.1.2.2	 Etiology
				15.1.2.3	 Epidemiology and Life Cycle
				15.1.2.4	 Clinical Signs
				15.1.2.5	 Diagnosis
				15.1.2.6	 Control and Treatment
				15.1.2.7	 Hygienic Measures
				15.1.2.8	 Anticoccidial Drugs
				15.1.2.9	 Alternative Anticoccidials in Turkeys
				15.1.2.10	 Anticoccidial Vaccines for Turkeys
			15.1.3	 Cryptosporidiosis
				15.1.3.1	 Summary
				15.1.3.2	 Etiology
				15.1.3.3	 Epidemiology
				15.1.3.4	 Clinical Signs and Pathology
				15.1.3.5	 Diagnosis
				15.1.3.6	 Control and Treatment
			15.1.4	 Haemoproteus
			15.1.5	 Leucocytozoon
				15.1.5.1	 Summary
				15.1.5.2	 Epidemiology
				15.1.5.3	 Life Cycle
				15.1.5.4	 Signs
				15.1.5.5	 Pathogeny
				15.1.5.6	 Diagnostic
				15.1.5.7	 Treatment and Control
			15.1.6	 Histomoniasis
				15.1.6.1	 Summary
				15.1.6.2	 Etiology
				15.1.6.3	 Epidemiology
				15.1.6.4	 Transmission
				15.1.6.5	 Clinical Signs and Postmortem Lesions
				15.1.6.6	 Diagnosis
				15.1.6.7	 Control
			15.1.7	 Trichomonas
				15.1.7.1	 Summary
				15.1.7.2	 Etiology
				15.1.7.3	 Epidemiology
				15.1.7.4	 Transmission
				15.1.7.5	 Pathogenesis
				15.1.7.6	 Clinical Signs and Lesions
				15.1.7.7	 Diagnosis
				15.1.7.8	 Control and Treatment
			15.1.8	 Cochlosomiasis
			15.1.9	 Hexamitiasis (Spironucleosis)
		15.2	 Nematode (Roundworms) Parasites Affecting Turkeys
			15.2.1	 Ascaridia spp.
				15.2.1.1	 Summary
				15.2.1.2	 Epidemiology
				15.2.1.3	 Pathogenesis
				15.2.1.4	 Life Cycle
				15.2.1.5	 Clinical Signs of Infection
				15.2.1.6	 Diagnosis
				15.2.1.7	 Control Measures and Treatment
			15.2.2	 Heterakis gallinarum
				15.2.2.1	 Summary
				15.2.2.2	 Epidemiology
				15.2.2.3	 Clinical Signs
				15.2.2.4	 Diagnosis
				15.2.2.5	 Prevention and Treatment
			15.2.3	 Subulura
				15.2.3.1	 Summary
				15.2.3.2	 Etiology
				15.2.3.3	 Epidemiology
				15.2.3.4	 Pathogenesis
				15.2.3.5	 Diagnosis
				15.2.3.6	 Control
			15.2.4	 Capillaria spp.
				15.2.4.1	 Summary
				15.2.4.2	 Epidemiology
				15.2.4.3	 Pathogenesis
				15.2.4.4	 Clinical Signs
				15.2.4.5	 Diagnosis
				15.2.4.6	 Treatment
				15.2.4.7	 Prevention
			15.2.5	 Tetrameres americana
				15.2.5.1	 Summary
				15.2.5.2	 Epidemiology
				15.2.5.3	 Etiology
				15.2.5.4	 Pathogenesis
				15.2.5.5	 Clinical Signs and Lesions
				15.2.5.6	 Diagnosis
				15.2.5.7	 Treatment and Control
			15.2.6	 Syngamus trachea
				15.2.6.1	 Summary
				15.2.6.2	 Etiology
				15.2.6.3	 Epidemiology
				15.2.6.4	 Pathogenesis
				15.2.6.5	 Diagnosis
				15.2.6.6	 Control
		15.3	 Tapeworm (Cestodes) Parasites Affecting Turkeys
			15.3.1	 Raillietina cesticillus
				15.3.1.1	 Epidemiology
				15.3.1.2	 Life Cycle
				15.3.1.3	 Clinical Signs
				15.3.1.4	 Diagnosis
				15.3.1.5	 Control Measures
			15.3.2	 Choanotaenia infundibulum
				15.3.2.1	 Life Cycle
				15.3.2.2	 Epidemiology
				15.3.2.3	 Pathogenesis
				15.3.2.4	 Diagnosis
				15.3.2.5	 Control
			15.3.3	 Metroliasthes lucida
				15.3.3.1	 Life Cycle
				15.3.3.2	 Etiology
				15.3.3.3	 Epidemiology
				15.3.3.4	 Clinical Signs
				15.3.3.5	 Diagnosis
				15.3.3.6	 Treatment and Control Measures
		15.4	 Conclusion
		References
	16: Ectoparasites Affecting Turkeys
		16.1	 Introduction
		16.2	 Mites
			16.2.1	 Skin Mites
				16.2.1.1	 Ornithonyssus sylviarum (Northern Fowl Mite)
					Description
					Life Cycle
					Epidemiology
					Pathogenesis
					Signs and Lesions
					Diagnosis
					Control and Treatment
				16.2.1.2	 Ornithonyssus bursa (Tropical Fowl Mite)
					Description
					Life Cycle
					Epidemiology
					Pathogenesis
					Signs and Lesions
					Diagnosis
					Control and Treatment
				16.2.1.3	 Dermanyssus gallinae (Poultry Red Mite)
					Description
					Life Cycle
					Epidemiology
					Pathogenesis
					Signs and Lesions
					Diagnosis
					Control and Treatment
				16.2.1.4	 Knemidocoptes mutans (Scaly Leg Mite)
					Description
					Life Cycle
					Epidemiology
					Pathogenesis
					Signs and Lesions
					Diagnosis
					Control and Treatment
			16.2.2	 Ticks
				16.2.2.1	 Argas
					Description
					Life Cycle
					Epidemiology
					Pathogenesis
					Signs and Lesions
					Diagnosis
					Control and Treatment
			16.2.3	 Lice
				16.2.3.1	 Menacanthus stramineus (Chicken Body Louse or Yellow Body Louse)
					Description
					Life Cycle
					Epidemiology
					Pathogenesis
					Signs and Lesions
					Diagnosis
					Control and Treatment
				16.2.3.2	 Menopon gallinae (Feather Shaft Louse)
					Description
					Life Cycle
					Epidemiology
					Pathogenesis
					Signs and Lesions
					Diagnosis
					Control and Treatment
				16.2.3.3	 Lipeurus caponis (Wing Lice)
					Description
					Life Cycle
					Epidemiology
					Pathogenesis
					Signs and Lesions
					Diagnosis
					Control and Treatment
				16.2.3.4	 Cuclotogaster heterographus (Chicken Head Louse)
					Description
					Life Cycle
					Epidemiology
					Pathogenesis
					Signs and Lesions
					Diagnosis
					Control and Treatment
				16.2.3.5	 Goniocotes gallinae (Poultry Fluff Louse)
					Description
					Life Cycle
					Epidemiology
					Pathogenesis
					Signs and Lesions
					Diagnosis
					Control and Treatment
				16.2.3.6	 Goniodes gigas (Large Chicken Louse)
					Description
					Life Cycle
					Epidemiology
					Pathogenesis
					Signs and Lesions
					Diagnosis
					Control and Treatment
				16.2.3.7	 Chelopistes meleagridis (Large Turkey Louse)
					Description
					Life Cycle
					Epidemiology
					Pathogenesis
					Signs and Lesions
					Diagnosis
					Control and Treatment
			16.2.4	 Fleas
				16.2.4.1	 Echidnophaga gallinacea (Sticktight or Southern Chicken Flea)
					Description
					Life Cycle
					Epidemiology
					Pathogenesis
					Signs and Lesions
					Diagnosis
					Control and Treatment
		References
Part III: Nutritional Disorders
	17: Nutritional Disorders in Fattening Turkeys
		17.1	 Protein and Amino Acids
		17.2	 Vitamins
			17.2.1	 Fat-Soluble Vitamins
				17.2.1.1	 Vitamin A
					Deficiency Signs
					Histopathology
					Toxicity
					Diagnosis
					Treatment
				17.2.1.2	 Vitamin D
					Deficiency Signs
					Histopathology
					Toxicity
					Diagnosis
					Treatment and Prevention
				17.2.1.3	 Vitamin E
					Deficiency Signs
					Diagnosis
					Treatment
				17.2.1.4	 Vitamin K
					Deficiency Signs
			17.2.2	 Water-Soluble Vitamins
				17.2.2.1	 Thiamin (Vitamin B1)
					Deficiency Signs
				17.2.2.2	 Riboflavin (Vitamin B2, Lactoflavin)
					Deficiency Signs
					Histopathology
					Treatment
				17.2.2.3	 Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)
					Deficiency Signs
				17.2.2.4	 Cobalamin (Vitamin B12)
					Deficiency Signs
					Treatment
				17.2.2.5	 Pantothenic Acid (Vitamin B5)
					Deficiency Signs
					Treatment
				17.2.2.6	 Niacin (Nicotinic Acid, Nicotinamide, Vitamin B3)
					Deficiency Signs
					Treatment
				17.2.2.7	 Folic Acid
					Deficiency Signs
					Folic Acid-Choline Interrelationship
					Treatment
				17.2.2.8	 Biotin (Vitamin B7)
					Deficiency Signs
					Treatment
				17.2.2.9	 Choline
					Deficiency Signs
					Treatment
				17.2.2.10	 Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
		17.3	 Minerals
			17.3.1	 Major Elements
				17.3.1.1	 Recommendations for the Supply of Major Elements
				17.3.1.2	 Calcium and Phosphorus
					Calcium Toxicity
				17.3.1.3	 Magnesium
					Deficiency and Signs
				17.3.1.4	 Sodium and Chlorine
					Deficiency Signs
					Toxicity
				17.3.1.5	 Potassium
					Deficiency Signs
					Toxicity
			17.3.2	 Trace Elements
				17.3.2.1	 Summary Recommendations for Supply
				17.3.2.2	 Iron
					Deficiency Signs
					Toxicity
				17.3.2.3	 Copper
					Deficiency Signs
				17.3.2.4	 Zinc
					Deficiency Signs
				17.3.2.5	 Manganese
				17.3.2.6	 Iodine (I)
				17.3.2.7	 Selenium
					Deficiency Signs
					Toxicity
		17.4	 Summary
		References
Part IV: Overview on Diagnosis, Prevention and Control of Turkey Diseases
	18: Diagnosis of Turkey Diseases
		18.1	 Respiratory Diseases in Turkeys
		18.2	 Enteric Disorders and Diseases
			18.2.1	 Noninfectious Causes
			18.2.2	 Infectious Causes
		18.3	 Locomotory Disturbances
		18.4	 Nervous Manifestations in Turkeys
		18.5	 Other Health Problems in Turkeys
		18.6	 Diagnosis of Bacteria in Turkeys
		References
	19: Vaccination and Treatment of Turkeys’ Diseases
		19.1	 Introduction
		19.2	 Types of Vaccines
			19.2.1	 Inactivated Vaccines
			19.2.2	 Live Vaccines
			19.2.3	 Recombinant Vaccines
			19.2.4	 Autogenous Vaccines
		19.3	 Commonly Used Routes of Administration of Vaccines
			19.3.1	 Oral/Drinking Water
			19.3.2	 Spray Method
			19.3.3	 Eye Drop Method
			19.3.4	 Injection
			19.3.5	 Thigh-Stick Method or Wing-Web
			19.3.6	 In Ovo Vaccination
		19.4	 Suggested Vaccination Program for Turkeys
		19.5	 Preventive Measures to Avoid Vaccination Failure
			19.5.1	 Vaccinal Seed and Vaccine Formulation
			19.5.2	 Proper Storage of Vaccines
			19.5.3	 Use of Stabilizers
			19.5.4	 Use of Immune Stimulants
			19.5.5	 Booster Dose
			19.5.6	 Avoiding Stress and Use of Immunostimulants
			19.5.7	 Deworming Before Vaccination
			19.5.8	 Monitoring of Subclinical Infections
			19.5.9	 Consideration of Maternal Antibodies
			19.5.10	 Continuous Surveillance
		19.6	 Treatment of Bacterial Diseases in Turkeys
		References
	20: Key Factors for Successful Organic Turkey Production
		20.1	 Introduction
		20.2	 Quality of Baby Chicks (Poults)
			20.2.1	 Keeping Optimal Microenvironment
			20.2.2	 Biosecurity
			20.2.3	 Water Sanitation Is One of the Cornerstones of Success
			20.2.4	 Litter Management
			20.2.5	 Prevention of Chronic Stress on Poultry
				20.2.5.1	 Dysbiosis and Leaky Gut Syndrome
				20.2.5.2	 Mycotoxins and Endotoxins
				20.2.5.3	 Oxidized Diet
				20.2.5.4	 Heat Stress
			20.2.6	 Nutraceuticals Supplementation to Reduce Antibiotics
		20.3	 Conclusions
		References