Trust Theory: A Socio-Cognitive and Computational Model (Wiley Series in Agent Technology)

TRUST THEORY......Page 5
Contents......Page 9
Foreword......Page 17
Introduction......Page 19
1 Definitions of Trust: From Conceptual Components to the General Core......Page 25
1.1 A Content Analysis......Page 26
1.2 Missed Components and Obscure Links......Page 30
1.3 Intentional Action and Lack of Controllability: Relying on What is Beyond Our Power......Page 33
1.4 Two Intertwined Notions of Trust: Trust as Attitude vs. Trust as Act......Page 35
1.5.2 Mayer, Davis, & Schoorman: Is Trust Only Willingness, for Any Kind of Vulnerability?......Page 37
1.5.4 Marsh: Is a Mere Expectation Enough for Modeling Trust?......Page 39
1.5.5 Yamagishi: Mixing up the Act of Trusting and the Act of Cooperating......Page 40
1.5.7 Hardin: Trust as Encapsulated Interest......Page 44
1.5.8 Rousseau: What Kind of Intention is ‘Trust’?......Page 48
References......Page 49
2 Socio-Cognitive Model of Trust: Basic Ingredients......Page 53
2.1.1 A Layered Notion......Page 54
2.2 Trust as Mental Attitude: a Belief-Based and Goal-Based Model......Page 56
2.2.1 Trust as Positive Evaluation......Page 57
2.2.2 The ‘Motivational’ Side of Trust......Page 62
2.2.3 The Crucial Notion of ‘Goal’......Page 63
2.2.5 Two Main Components: Competence Versus Predictability......Page 65
2.2.6 Trustworthiness (and trust) as Multidimensional Evaluative Profiles......Page 67
2.2.7 The Inherently Attributional Nature of Trust......Page 68
2.2.8 Trust, Positive Evaluation and Positive Expectation......Page 70
2.3.1 Epistemic Goals and Activity......Page 72
2.3.2 Content Goals......Page 73
2.3.3 The Quantitative Aspects of Mental Attitudes......Page 74
2.3.5 Emotional Response to Expectation is Specific: the Strength of Disappointment......Page 76
2.4 ‘No Danger’: Negative or Passive or Defensive Trust......Page 78
2.5 Weakening the Belief-Base: Implicit Beliefs, Acceptances, and Trust by-Default......Page 80
2.6 From Disposition to Action......Page 82
2.6.1 Trust That and Trust in......Page 84
2.6.2 Trust Pre-disposition and Disposition: From Potential to Actual Trust......Page 85
2.6.3 The Decision and Act of Trust Implies the Decision to Rely on......Page 87
2.7 Can we Decide to Trust?......Page 90
2.8 Risk, Investment and Bet......Page 91
2.8.1 ‘Risk’ Definition and Ontology......Page 92
2.8.2 What Kinds of Taken Risks Characterize Trust Decisions?......Page 94
2.9 Trust and Delegation......Page 95
2.9.1 Trust in Different Forms of Delegation......Page 97
2.9.2 Trust in Open Delegation Versus Trust in Closed Delegation......Page 98
2.10.1 Why Does X Trust Y?......Page 100
2.10.2 The Role of the Context/Environment in Trust......Page 101
2.11 Genuine Social Trust: Trust and Adoption......Page 102
2.11.2 How Expectations Generate (Entitled) Prescriptions: Towards ‘Betrayal’......Page 106
2.11.3 Super-Trust or Tutorial Trust......Page 107
2.12 Resuming the Model......Page 109
References......Page 110
3.1 Degrees of Trust: a Principled Quantification of Trust......Page 113
3.2 Relationships between Trust in Beliefs and Trust in Action and Delegation......Page 115
3.3 A Belief-Based Degree of Trust......Page 116
3.4 To Trust or Not to Trust: Degrees of Trust and Decision to Trust......Page 119
3.5 Positive Trust is not Enough: a Variable Threshold for Risk Acceptance/Avoidance......Page 125
3.6 Generalizing the Trust Decision to a Set of Agents......Page 129
3.7.2 Over-Confidence and Over-Diffidence......Page 130
3.8 Conclusions......Page 132
References......Page 133
4.1 From Lack of Trust to Diffidence: Not Simply a Matter of Degree......Page 135
4.1.1 Mistrust as a Negative Evaluation......Page 136
4.2 Lack of Trust......Page 137
4.3 The Complete Picture......Page 138
4.4 In Sum......Page 139
4.6 Implicit and by Default Forms of Trust......Page 140
4.6.1 Social by-Default Trust......Page 142
4.7 Insufficient Trust......Page 143
4.8.1 Control and Uncertainty......Page 144
4.8.3 To Give or Not to Give Credit......Page 145
4.8.4 Distrust as Not Giving Credit......Page 147
References......Page 149
5 The Affective and Intuitive Forms of Trust: The Confidence We Inspire......Page 151
5.2 The Dual Nature of Valence: Cognitive Evaluations Versus Intuitive Appraisal......Page 152
5.3 Evaluations......Page 153
5.3.1 Evaluations and Emotions......Page 154
5.4 Appraisal......Page 155
5.5 Relationships Between Appraisal and Evaluation......Page 156
5.6 Trust as Feeling......Page 158
5.7 Trust Disposition as an Emotion and Trust Action as an Impulse......Page 159
5.8 Basing Trust on the Emotions of the Other......Page 160
5.10 Layers and Paths......Page 161
5.11 Conclusions About Trust and Emotions......Page 162
References......Page 163
6 Dynamics of Trust......Page 165
6.1 Mental Ingredients in Trust Dynamics......Page 166
6.2 Experience as an Interpretation Process: Causal Attribution for Trust......Page 168
6.3.1 The Case of Weak Delegation......Page 172
6.3.2 The Case of Strong Delegation......Page 176
6.3.3 Anticipated Effects: A Planned Dynamics......Page 179
6.4 The Dynamics of Reciprocal Trust and Distrust......Page 182
6.5.1 Since Z Trusts Y, Also X Trusts Y......Page 186
6.5.3 Calculated Influence......Page 191
6.6 Trust Through Transfer and Generalization......Page 192
6.6.2 Matching Agents’ Features and Tasks’ Properties......Page 193
6.6.3 Formal Analysis......Page 195
6.6.4 Generalizing to Different Tasks and Agents......Page 196
6.6.5 Classes of Agents and Tasks......Page 200
6.7 The Relativity of Trust: Reasons for Trust Crisis......Page 202
6.8 Concluding Remarks......Page 206
References......Page 207
7.1 Trust and Control: A Complex Relationship......Page 209
7.1.2 What Control is......Page 210
7.1.3 Control Replaces Trust and Trust Makes Control Superflous?......Page 213
7.1.4 Trust Notions: Strict (Antagonist of Control) and Broad (Including Control)......Page 214
7.1.5 Relying on Control and Bonds Requires Additional Trust: Three Party Trust......Page 216
7.1.6 How Control Increases and Complements Trust......Page 218
7.1.7 Two Kinds of Control......Page 219
7.1.8 Filling the Gap between Doing/Action and Achieving/Results......Page 221
7.1.9 The Dynamics......Page 222
7.1.10 Control Kills Trust......Page 223
7.2 Adjusting Autonomy and Delegation on the Basis of Trust in Y......Page 224
7.2.2 Delegation/Adoption Theory......Page 227
7.2.3 The Adjustment of Delegation/Adoption......Page 231
7.2.4 Channels for the Bilateral Adjustments......Page 240
7.2.5 Protocols for Control Adjustments......Page 241
7.2.7 Adjusting Meta-Autonomy and Realization-Autonomy of the Trustee......Page 243
7.2.8 Adjusting Autonomy by Modyfing Control......Page 244
7.2.9 When to Adjust the Autonomy of the Agents......Page 245
7.3 Conclusions......Page 248
References......Page 250
8 The Economic Reductionism and Trust (Ir)rationality......Page 253
8.1.1 Is Trust a Belief in the Other’s Irrationality?......Page 254
8.2.1 The Rose-Tinted Glasses of Trust......Page 257
8.2.2 Risk Perception......Page 264
8.3.1 Is Trust Only about Predictability? A Very Bad Service but a Sure One......Page 265
8.3.3 Probability Collapses Internal and External (Attributions of) Trust......Page 266
8.3.6 Probability Reduction Exposes to Eliminative Behavior: Against Williamson......Page 268
8.3.7 Probability Mixes up Various Kinds of Beliefs, Evaluations, Expectations about the Trustee and Their Mind......Page 270
8.4 Trust in Game Theory: from Opportunism to Reciprocity......Page 272
8.4.2 ‘To Trust’ is not ‘to Cooperate’......Page 273
8.5 Trust Game: A Procuste’s Bed for Trust Theory......Page 274
8.6 Does Trust Presuppose Reciprocity?......Page 276
8.8 Trusting as Signaling......Page 278
References......Page 279
9.1 Why Trust is the ‘Glue of Society’......Page 283
9.2 Trust and Social Order......Page 284
9.3 How the Action of Trust Acquires the Social Function of Creating Trust......Page 286
9.4.1 Local Repercussions......Page 288
9.4.2 Trans-Local Repercussions......Page 289
9.5.2 Increasing Trust: from Intentions to Contracts......Page 290
9.6 Is Trust Based on Norms?......Page 293
9.6.1 Does Trust Create Trust and does There Exist a Norm of Reciprocating Trust?......Page 295
9.7 Trust: The Catalyst of Institutions......Page 296
References......Page 297
10 On the Trustee’s Side: Trust As Relational Capital......Page 299
10.1 Trust and Relational Capital......Page 300
10.2 Cognitive Model of Being Trusted......Page 302
10.2.1 Objective and Subjective Dependence......Page 303
10.2.2 Dependence and Negotiation Power......Page 307
10.2.3 Trust Role in Dependence Networks......Page 310
10.3.1 Increasing, Decreasing and Transferring......Page 315
10.3.2 Strategic Behavior of the Trustee......Page 318
10.4 From Trust Relational Capital to Reputational Capital......Page 319
References......Page 320
11 A Fuzzy Implementation for the Socio-Cognitive Approach to Trust......Page 323
11.2 Scenarios......Page 324
11.4 Building Belief Sources......Page 325
11.4.1 A Note on Self-Trust......Page 327
11.5 Implementation with Nested FCMs......Page 328
11.6 Converging and Diverging Belief Sources......Page 329
11.8 Modeling Beliefs and Sources......Page 330
11.9 Overview of the Implementation......Page 331
11.9.1 A Note on Fuzzy Values......Page 333
11.11 Running the Model......Page 334
11.12.1 Routine Visit Scenario......Page 335
11.12.2 Emergency Visit Scenario......Page 337
11.12.3 Trustfulness and Decision......Page 338
11.12.4 Experimental Discussion......Page 339
11.12.6 Personality Factors......Page 340
11.13 Learning Mechanisms......Page 341
11.13.2 Explicit Revision......Page 342
11.13.3 A Taxonomy of Possible Revisions......Page 343
11.14.1 Experimental Setting......Page 344
11.14.2 Delegation Strategies......Page 345
11.14.3 The Contract Net Structure......Page 346
11.14.5 FCMs for Trust......Page 347
11.14.6 Experiments Description......Page 348
11.14.7 Using Partial Knowledge: the Strength of a Cognitive Analysis......Page 351
11.14.8 Results Discussion......Page 357
11.14.9 Comparison with Other Existing Models and Conclusions......Page 359
References......Page 360
12 Trust and Technology......Page 361
12.1 Main Difference Between Security and Trust......Page 362
12.2 Trust Models and Technology......Page 363
12.2.1 Logical Approaches......Page 364
12.2.3 Different Kinds of Sources......Page 365
12.2.4 Centralized Reputation Mechanisms......Page 366
12.2.5 Decentralized Reputation Mechanisms......Page 367
12.2.6 Different Kinds of Metrics......Page 368
12.2.7 Other Models and Approaches to Trust in the Computational Framework......Page 369
References......Page 372
13.1 Against Reductionism......Page 377
13.2 Neuro-Trust and the Need for a Theoretical Model......Page 378
13.3 Trust, Institutions, Politics (Some Pills of Reflection)......Page 379
13.3.1 For Italy (All’Italia)......Page 380
References......Page 381
Index......Page 383